Determinism in Reciprocal Causality

The reciprocal determinism approach differs from problem-solving theorists in that it focuses on the interplay between cognition and motivation in shaping human behavior and outcomes. The Ziegarnik effect is a key concept in this theory, which highlights the role of uncompleted tasks in motivating individuals to achieve their goals. Furthermore, David McClelland's theory of achievement motivation emphasizes the importance of motivation in driving memory performance.

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
Memory Enhancement
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The Impact of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social
Cognitive Approaches on Memory Enhancement
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The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
Memory Enhancement
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Abstract
With an emphasis on learning theory from the social cognitive perspective, the problem solving
approach and the theory of motivation stemming from the Need for Achievement, this thesis is an
attempt to conceptualize the common themes and concepts in the concept of memory
improvement, retention and recall. A review of literature from contemporary and classic theorists
will attempt to substantiate the key contentions that memory is a sum total of motivated, goal
directed behaviors.
1. 1 Introduction
Memory involves the process of encoding, storing, retaining, recalling data. According to
cognitive psychologist Margaret W. Maitlin in the year 2005, memory is the process of
maintenance of information over a duration of time. Bertsch, Pesta, Wiscott & McDaniel, (2007)
has defined memory as the means through which humans use past experiences to solve present
problems. It is often claimed that individuals perform better in memory tasks when they are
motivated. While some researchers dispute this (Brown & Craik, 2000), considerable research
has been performed on achievement motivation, social cognitive theory and problem solving
approaches which stresses otherwise. The thesis will attempt to understand the relative
contribution of each of these three psychological theories coming from different perspectives on
the memory enhancement of individuals.

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
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2.1 Discussion
2.1.1. Achievement Motivation and Memory Enhancement
While it is important to consider the role of psychological theories in totality in the studying of
motivation in memory, the influence of mastery as well as performance approach goals has been
studied with respect to the context of memory and motivation. Mastery approach improved recall
for data that was attained through deep or elaborate processing. Achievement goals also impact
the way people perform on memory tasks, because they show a desire for competence and want
to prove themselves (Conway, Gardiner, Perfect, Anderson & Cohen, 1997). Mastery,
performance avoidance and performance approach are the three distinctive goals influencing
achievement motivation. The achievement goals influence outcomes. In research on memory,
qualitatively distinct differences are noted on immediate and delayed tests of memory (Dooling
& Lachman, 1971). Mastery approach is linked to thirst for learning, exploration and an interest
associated focus on learning.
Mastery goals may push forward attention beyond the target to notions that are linked with the
critical information to be recalled. Performance approach, in contrast is aspiration linked and
associated with specific information that has been remembered. Remembering and knowing are
the 2 key areas most memory theorists differentiate (Dougal & Schooler, 2007). Remembering
and recalling represent different factors influencing memory recollection and memory recall.
Subjective states of awareness are associated with different aspects of memory recall.
Researchers have held that time based effects of achievement goals on memory responses or

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recall implicate deep and not shallow processing aspects. Broad based encoding is determined by
mastery goals and instrumental coding is influenced by performance goals (Elliot et al., 2015).
Mastery achievement as well as performance approach goals are vital for improving memory, but
are integrating in motivating one to engage in memory improvement and positive outcomes and
results. Elliot (1999) found evidence for this, that those who scored high on tests showed greater
memory performance for test material in the course the semester, but more knowledge after a
twenty-five week interval.
The “remember to know” transition as proposed by shows the shift from episodic to semantic
symbols. The link between achievement motivation and memory has thus been explored (Elliot
& Harackiewicz, 1996). The motivational difficulty of the task rises with motivational energy
needed. Positive motivation and affect influence recall as it has been demonstrated with respect
to the Stroop Interference. The role of achievement motivation in influencing memory cannot be
stressed enough.
Human motivation focuses on the importance of social needs as well as motives as a impetus for
goal directed activity. Energy persistence and direction is associated with the strength of the
need for achievement as opposed to power and affiliation. The need for achievement has been
found to be correlated to neurotransmitter substrates that initiate memory.
The emphasis here is that positive affect alone does not initiate recall in the absence of need for
achievement in behavior that is intention based and goal directed, or memory recall. Task
difficulty is essential for need fulfillment only in achievement motivation as opposed to other
types of motivation such as Affiliation and Power. The need for achievement has been defined on

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
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the basis of of tendency to take part in behavior that is critical in attaining success in difficult
tasks such as memory improvement and use of memory techniques (Elliot & McGregor, 2001).
Easy, automatized responses do not require effort as opposed to complex, explicitly intended
responses such as memory recall. Need over affect serve as powerful motivators of memory
(Goldstein & Levin 1987).
Research even shows that message forming that takes on differences in motivation into account
yields positive outcomes. Positively framed N'Ach messages were better remembered.
2.1.2: Problem Solving Approach and Memory Enhancement
Central to the process of memory improvement is the problem solving approach. Hamann (2001)
conceptualized a problem in terms of a question without an answer. Hambrich and Engle (2003)
define it in terms of unattainable goals. Problem solving is a complex cognitive process requiring
skills integration and executive control (Goldstein & Levin, 1987).
From the Gestalt to the information processing approach, there are many theoretical
explanations. Some psychologists have theorized that problem solving is a kind of remembering.
The problem solving approach proposed memory retention to be the problem and avoiding
problem solving challenges and mental sets like functional fixedness proposed by Duncker. He
further shows problems are more memorable when subjects are unable to solve them. This
interruption in the information acquisition may lead to heightened memory recall.
This can be applied in the context of memory enhancement as well. Tip of the Tongue
phenomenon which provides support for this theory. The importance of errors in improving

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
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learning. In contrast, another effect central to problem solving is the generation effect (Kuhl &
Kaze´n 1999). This involves students generating information and answers themselves better able
to recall the information.
The differential impact of these two effects can be used to ensure memory improvement.
Subjects in one study were found to remember story details that conformed to schemes better
reconstructive memory. Past literature has shown positive relations between comprehension and
late recall of memory. Dooling & Lachman (1971) originally came to this conclusion. According
to Brown & Craik (2000) levels of processing perspective, solved problems were processed
elaborately and easily remembered.
2.1.3: Social Cognitive Approach and Memory Enhancement
Three decades ago, social cognitive researchers starting with the founder of this school of
thought, Albert Bandura studied numerous concepts like response inhibition, adoption of self
regulatory standards (Malmberg, 2008). More concepts were proposed. Social cognitive theory
to motivation. Other fields where it has been applied successfully include health control, mental
health improvement and career development. Self regulation is a concept in Bandura's social
cognitive theory (Brown & Craik, 2000). Modelling and reinforcement are not enough to achieve
better recall. The role of self-reinforcement and self-regulation is the concept central to this
theory which applies to memory improvement in this present context. Standard setting,
evaluation and self-reinforcement play a critical role here. Mastery modeling is also powerful in
the educational setting.

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Cognitive rules of self-regulation influence higher order cognitive processes like memory. A
model of self-regulation comprising judgmental processes, performance observation, and self-
reactive responses. Self-motivation was emphasized by Bandura in 1977, resulting from triadic
reciprocal determinism involving the person, environment and behavior.
Constructs of the social cognitive approach are as follows. Behavioral capability refers to skill
and knowledge to perform a certain behavior; promote mastery learning through skills training.
Environmental factors impact the individual, and vice versa. Strategies and/or tactics used by the
individual to deal encapsulate his/her emotion-centric resources for coping. Outcome
expectations are the belief about the likelihood and value of their choices. The self efficacy is the
individual's confidence in engaging in a certain behavior to bring about positive outcomes.
Finally the beliefs that are necessary to impact the behavior of the person to impact the outcomes
come into play. Observational learning forms the core of the social learning or social cognitive
approach whereby learning takes place through the observation of others including important
role models concerning the targeted behavior. Incentive motivation involves the use of positive
reinforcement and punishments to influence desirable outcomes while facilitation provides the
resources necessary for this. Finally, self regulating goal directed behavior and the individual's
ability to control their outcomes through multiple methods include self monitoring, self
reinforcement, feedback, knowledge of results, self instruction , goal setting,and social support.
Reciprocal Determinism is the interaction between the individual, and the environment in which
the behavior is performed.
Studies have shown vicarious and direct problem solving outcomes influences perception of

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
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student self efficacy and motivation for better recall (Dougal & Schooler, 2007).
Metacognitively, behaviorally and motivationally self directing their learning processes, students
can benefit from self regulations. The concept proposed by Bandura has implications which hold
relevance for the enhancement and improvement of recall. Self regulation of learning strategies
are important. Perception of self efficacy influences motivation necessary for self regulated
learning.
Conclusion
This thesis attempts to study the impact of the three prominent schools of thought on the problem
of memory recall and retention specially the social cognitive approach, the problem solving
approach and the theory of achievement motivation. The social cognitive approach was proposed
by Albert Bandura and it is one of the chief and most complex explanations of how social
behavior results. But what Bandura, who conducted the famous Bobo Doll experiment study
found out was a key to the study of memory. Essentially, Bandura focused on social learning and
self efficacy, thereby laying the ground work for reciprocal determinism. This was so very
different from the approach taken by the problem solving theorists belonging to the information
processing approach, specially laying the groundwork for relevant effects like the Ziegarnik
effect which lay the foundation of social behaviors and individual outcomes for complex, higher
order cognitive processes like memory. Finally, the theory of Achievement Motivation proposed
by David McClelland has captured the essence of what constitutes superior memory
performance. This forms the basis of the examination of how achievement motivation can

The Role of Achievement Motivation, Problem Solving and Social Cognitive Approaches on
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influence human behavior including higher order, complex, cognitive processes like recognition,
recall and memory improvement.

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