Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition
Added on 2023-03-31
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Professional DevelopmentK12Higher EducationTeacher DevelopmentNutrition and WellnessGrammar and WritingLanguages and CulturePsychologySociology
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Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note
Literature Review
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note
1LITERATURE REVIEW
1.0 Over view
The main objective and aim of this paper is to understand how the different factors of the
ability of the teachers belonging to the English medium affect their capability to impart
mainstream curriculum to the English Acquisition Language learners. For this, the paper focuses
on the different fields of self efficacy, English medium instruction and professional development
as observed in the region of Abu Dhabi. This chapter explains in detail all the different areas by
taking a detailed and in-depth view of the opinions as presented by the various scholars and
thinkers. For this purpose, various secondary sources of literature have been considered such as
those of books, journals and academic articles.
1.1 Conceptual Framework
Education is one of the most important requirement for an individual. In this system of
education, the language of English holds a primary position as it allows people to effectively
communicate with each other (Lardiere, 2017). In this respect, the responsibility of a teacher is
vital as it is the teacher who ensures that the subjects are properly delegated to the students in a
way which is found to be understandable to them. The curriculum so developed enables the
concerned teachers to develop their self-efficacy. Furthermore, this helps in the professional
development of the individuals (Saville-Troike & Barto, 2016).
Curriculum development is the most important requirement in the field of education. This
provides a basic frame work to the teachers to understand what needs to be taught to the students
in a time bound manner. Richards (2015) is of the view that training in the field of language
development is vital for the improvement of the teachers. This would help the teachers to
increase their ability to deliver mainstream curriculum to the English additional learners.
1.0 Over view
The main objective and aim of this paper is to understand how the different factors of the
ability of the teachers belonging to the English medium affect their capability to impart
mainstream curriculum to the English Acquisition Language learners. For this, the paper focuses
on the different fields of self efficacy, English medium instruction and professional development
as observed in the region of Abu Dhabi. This chapter explains in detail all the different areas by
taking a detailed and in-depth view of the opinions as presented by the various scholars and
thinkers. For this purpose, various secondary sources of literature have been considered such as
those of books, journals and academic articles.
1.1 Conceptual Framework
Education is one of the most important requirement for an individual. In this system of
education, the language of English holds a primary position as it allows people to effectively
communicate with each other (Lardiere, 2017). In this respect, the responsibility of a teacher is
vital as it is the teacher who ensures that the subjects are properly delegated to the students in a
way which is found to be understandable to them. The curriculum so developed enables the
concerned teachers to develop their self-efficacy. Furthermore, this helps in the professional
development of the individuals (Saville-Troike & Barto, 2016).
Curriculum development is the most important requirement in the field of education. This
provides a basic frame work to the teachers to understand what needs to be taught to the students
in a time bound manner. Richards (2015) is of the view that training in the field of language
development is vital for the improvement of the teachers. This would help the teachers to
increase their ability to deliver mainstream curriculum to the English additional learners.
2LITERATURE REVIEW
However, Song (2018), opines that different methods need to be applied in order to improve the
English language teaching of the teachers.
1.2 Second Language Acquisition
In the contemporary world, people are found to be speaking a host of languages. This has
mainly arisen as a response to the new age of globalization and digitization whereby the different
avenues providing such benefits of interacting with people belonging to the other parts of the
world have increased in number. According to Long (2017), this is significant to understand
because nowadays people are expected to know more than one language.
As argued by VanPatten and Benati (2015), it can be seen that the native language of an
individual is well developed within him or her from birth. This is a natural process that occurs.
However, as stated by Cook (2016), the other languages are acquired languages. This means that
such languages are not developed within an individual in a natural and inherent manner. Rather,
they have to be learned by such people concerned.
However, as opined by Flowerdew (2015), the factor of how such languages can be acquired
by an individual is always a concern for the entire society. Many theories have been proposed by
several psychologists and psycholinguistics of the contemporary world. One of the theories
which has been proposed by the scholars is that of Behaviourism. According to Escamilla and
Grassi (2015), the Behaviorist theory claims that a language is constructed within an individual
with the aid of exposure to the entire world. This brings in the issue of globalization which can
be perceived to occupy a dominating presence in the twenty first century. According to Kramsch
(2017), the theory of behavioralism states that the mind of a person is rather difficult to
understand as it is influenced heavily by psychology. It is observed, as stated by McDonough
(2017), that behavior is something which is more influenced by certain external factors of the
However, Song (2018), opines that different methods need to be applied in order to improve the
English language teaching of the teachers.
1.2 Second Language Acquisition
In the contemporary world, people are found to be speaking a host of languages. This has
mainly arisen as a response to the new age of globalization and digitization whereby the different
avenues providing such benefits of interacting with people belonging to the other parts of the
world have increased in number. According to Long (2017), this is significant to understand
because nowadays people are expected to know more than one language.
As argued by VanPatten and Benati (2015), it can be seen that the native language of an
individual is well developed within him or her from birth. This is a natural process that occurs.
However, as stated by Cook (2016), the other languages are acquired languages. This means that
such languages are not developed within an individual in a natural and inherent manner. Rather,
they have to be learned by such people concerned.
However, as opined by Flowerdew (2015), the factor of how such languages can be acquired
by an individual is always a concern for the entire society. Many theories have been proposed by
several psychologists and psycholinguistics of the contemporary world. One of the theories
which has been proposed by the scholars is that of Behaviourism. According to Escamilla and
Grassi (2015), the Behaviorist theory claims that a language is constructed within an individual
with the aid of exposure to the entire world. This brings in the issue of globalization which can
be perceived to occupy a dominating presence in the twenty first century. According to Kramsch
(2017), the theory of behavioralism states that the mind of a person is rather difficult to
understand as it is influenced heavily by psychology. It is observed, as stated by McDonough
(2017), that behavior is something which is more influenced by certain external factors of the
3LITERATURE REVIEW
environment. Larsen‐Freeman (2018) was of the opinion that a language is acquired by an
individual with the aid of something known as the stimulus response reward. Furthermore, he
was of the idea that languages can also be acquired by a child by imitating the words and actions
of their parents and establishing certain relationships between the objects observed by them and
the words learnt by them. Thus, in this sense, in the opinion of Hulstijn (2015), language is
highly dependent on the external environment, as stated by the authors advocating the
Behaviorist theory.
Another theory which talks about the development of second language acquisition among
the individuals of the society is that of the Constructivist. According to van Vlack (2016), the
theory of Constructivist states that language is a part of the social cognitive process. From this,
as opined by Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the theory given by Piaget comes to the forefront.
According to Piaget, the individuals, since birth passes through certain important stages of life
development. Such stages can be divided in to different categories depending upon the age of the
individual. In has been determined by Yoo (2016) that maturity of an individual is highly co-
related with their age. This flows from the fact that with the increase in age of an individual, their
life experiences also increase. According to Aldridge and Fraser (2016). Piaget believed that the
world which is perceived by a younger individual is considerably different than the one
perceived by an adult. As a consequence of this, a younger person has a greater potential of
accepting certain things such as the learning of a second language. According to Wang, Hall and
Rahimi (2015), their mind is still in the development stage and therefore, they have the ability to
understand and imbibe in them new information and knowledge.
However as argued by McLennan, McIlveen and Perera (2017), another theory which
discusses how second language acquisition occurs among the people of the community is that of
environment. Larsen‐Freeman (2018) was of the opinion that a language is acquired by an
individual with the aid of something known as the stimulus response reward. Furthermore, he
was of the idea that languages can also be acquired by a child by imitating the words and actions
of their parents and establishing certain relationships between the objects observed by them and
the words learnt by them. Thus, in this sense, in the opinion of Hulstijn (2015), language is
highly dependent on the external environment, as stated by the authors advocating the
Behaviorist theory.
Another theory which talks about the development of second language acquisition among
the individuals of the society is that of the Constructivist. According to van Vlack (2016), the
theory of Constructivist states that language is a part of the social cognitive process. From this,
as opined by Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the theory given by Piaget comes to the forefront.
According to Piaget, the individuals, since birth passes through certain important stages of life
development. Such stages can be divided in to different categories depending upon the age of the
individual. In has been determined by Yoo (2016) that maturity of an individual is highly co-
related with their age. This flows from the fact that with the increase in age of an individual, their
life experiences also increase. According to Aldridge and Fraser (2016). Piaget believed that the
world which is perceived by a younger individual is considerably different than the one
perceived by an adult. As a consequence of this, a younger person has a greater potential of
accepting certain things such as the learning of a second language. According to Wang, Hall and
Rahimi (2015), their mind is still in the development stage and therefore, they have the ability to
understand and imbibe in them new information and knowledge.
However as argued by McLennan, McIlveen and Perera (2017), another theory which
discusses how second language acquisition occurs among the people of the community is that of
4LITERATURE REVIEW
social interactions. This theory of social interaction is based on the research study that has been
done by Jerome Bruner. The authors advocating this theory, as opined by Sezgin and Erdogan
(2015), believed that second language is acquired by an individual during the younger phase of
his or life as a result of all the interactions that place during this stage. Thus, it can be observed
that interactions form the main basis of the development and growth of second language
acquisition within a person. According to Maddux (2016), it is stated that the level of interaction
that is done by an individual highly influences his or her language. This is important to
understand because as per the theory of Social Interactions, the .level of informal communication
done by an individual aids them to relate the worldly objects with certain foreign language words
and ideas.
A forth theory that is propounded by Noam Choamsky in 1959 that tries to understand the
importance and manner of second language acquisition is that of the theory of Nativism.
Choamsky opined that a child is able to learn many languages by being associated with the
environment himself or herself. Thus, according to Nurlu (2017), it is believed that Choamsky
stated that an young individual is not only able to learn and understand the first language by
being associated with the environment. Rather, it is possible to learn many different things by
observing nature, one of which is other languages. As argued by Horvitz et al. (2015), it can be
observed that the acquisition of a language is quite different from the general intelligence skill of
a person. This is in sharp contrast with the theory of cognitive development as opined by Piaget.
According to Schunk and Bursuck (2016), Piaget opined that the development of the cognitive
ability of an individual highly influences his or her ability to acquire a second language in an
effective manner. In the opinion of Choamsky, as stated by Bruning and Kauffman (2015), the
adult speech with regard to a second language degenerate as compared to the second language as
social interactions. This theory of social interaction is based on the research study that has been
done by Jerome Bruner. The authors advocating this theory, as opined by Sezgin and Erdogan
(2015), believed that second language is acquired by an individual during the younger phase of
his or life as a result of all the interactions that place during this stage. Thus, it can be observed
that interactions form the main basis of the development and growth of second language
acquisition within a person. According to Maddux (2016), it is stated that the level of interaction
that is done by an individual highly influences his or her language. This is important to
understand because as per the theory of Social Interactions, the .level of informal communication
done by an individual aids them to relate the worldly objects with certain foreign language words
and ideas.
A forth theory that is propounded by Noam Choamsky in 1959 that tries to understand the
importance and manner of second language acquisition is that of the theory of Nativism.
Choamsky opined that a child is able to learn many languages by being associated with the
environment himself or herself. Thus, according to Nurlu (2017), it is believed that Choamsky
stated that an young individual is not only able to learn and understand the first language by
being associated with the environment. Rather, it is possible to learn many different things by
observing nature, one of which is other languages. As argued by Horvitz et al. (2015), it can be
observed that the acquisition of a language is quite different from the general intelligence skill of
a person. This is in sharp contrast with the theory of cognitive development as opined by Piaget.
According to Schunk and Bursuck (2016), Piaget opined that the development of the cognitive
ability of an individual highly influences his or her ability to acquire a second language in an
effective manner. In the opinion of Choamsky, as stated by Bruning and Kauffman (2015), the
adult speech with regard to a second language degenerate as compared to the second language as
5LITERATURE REVIEW
spoken by a younger individual. Thus, it can be observed that the theory of Nativism focuses on
the factor of nature and environment while analysing how it influences the development of
second language in an individual.
1.3 Factors influencing the development of second language acquisition among the
individuals
Second language acquisition occurs through a variety of means and ways. However, it is
first important to understand what the different factors which influence the development of
second language acquisition among the individuals of the society are. According to Morris,
Usher and Chen (2017), it is only after the comprehensive analysis of such factors that they can
be properly utilized in order to develop a structure of ensuring the second language acquisition
among the children and other members of the community.
Age
The first factor which influences the level and efficiency of second language acquisition
among the people of the world is the factor of age. According to Bartimote-Aufflick et al.
(2016), Piaget was the first psychologist to understand how age impacts the process of social
cognitive development among the individuals of the society. Piaget was of the idea that the first
stage of a child’s development is known as the sensory motor stage. According to (), this stage
signifies the development of the mental stage of an individual. In other words, the child observes
the environment and learns from it about all the different aspects of the world. In the opinion of
Yoo (2016), this is quite aligned with the theory of as advocated by the Behaviorist and that of
the Nativism. Thus, Piaget’s understanding of the stage of social cognition in an individual is
spoken by a younger individual. Thus, it can be observed that the theory of Nativism focuses on
the factor of nature and environment while analysing how it influences the development of
second language in an individual.
1.3 Factors influencing the development of second language acquisition among the
individuals
Second language acquisition occurs through a variety of means and ways. However, it is
first important to understand what the different factors which influence the development of
second language acquisition among the individuals of the society are. According to Morris,
Usher and Chen (2017), it is only after the comprehensive analysis of such factors that they can
be properly utilized in order to develop a structure of ensuring the second language acquisition
among the children and other members of the community.
Age
The first factor which influences the level and efficiency of second language acquisition
among the people of the world is the factor of age. According to Bartimote-Aufflick et al.
(2016), Piaget was the first psychologist to understand how age impacts the process of social
cognitive development among the individuals of the society. Piaget was of the idea that the first
stage of a child’s development is known as the sensory motor stage. According to (), this stage
signifies the development of the mental stage of an individual. In other words, the child observes
the environment and learns from it about all the different aspects of the world. In the opinion of
Yoo (2016), this is quite aligned with the theory of as advocated by the Behaviorist and that of
the Nativism. Thus, Piaget’s understanding of the stage of social cognition in an individual is
6LITERATURE REVIEW
significant because it is able to validate most o the theories related with second language
acquisition.
Furthermore, according to Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the factor of age can be seen to
be influencing the aspect of second language learning through the development of experiences.
This theory flows from the one propounded by Piaget. In the words of van Vlack (2016), it is
quite difficult for an adult to learn a new language and the words and grammar, as compared to
the capability of a child. This is due to the fact that the cognition level develops in a faster stage
in a child rather than in an adult. According to Hulstijn (2015), the mind of an adult stops
growing after the age of eighteen years of age. This marks the end of the adolescent period. After
this stage, everything depends upon the experiences of the individuals which aids them to
survive in the world. However, as stated by Larsen‐Freeman (2018), this means that after this
stage, they are unable to learn something new simply on the basis of their general intelligence.
Thus, it can be said that second language acquisition should occur in the childhood days of an
individual’s life rather than in the adult phase.
Attitude
A second factor that influences the level of second language acquisition among the different
members of the society is that of the attitude of the concerned individuals who want to learn a
second language. According to McDonough (2017), the attitude and behavior of a person to an
aspect of life greatly determines the presence or absence of that aspect in the life of the
individual in question. In other words, it can be observed that if an individual has a positive
attitude towards the learning of a second language, then he or she would be able to imbibe the
language in themselves in an effective and efficient manner. However, on the other hand, as
opined by Kramsch (2017), it can be seen that a negative attitude and a reluctance on the part of
significant because it is able to validate most o the theories related with second language
acquisition.
Furthermore, according to Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the factor of age can be seen to
be influencing the aspect of second language learning through the development of experiences.
This theory flows from the one propounded by Piaget. In the words of van Vlack (2016), it is
quite difficult for an adult to learn a new language and the words and grammar, as compared to
the capability of a child. This is due to the fact that the cognition level develops in a faster stage
in a child rather than in an adult. According to Hulstijn (2015), the mind of an adult stops
growing after the age of eighteen years of age. This marks the end of the adolescent period. After
this stage, everything depends upon the experiences of the individuals which aids them to
survive in the world. However, as stated by Larsen‐Freeman (2018), this means that after this
stage, they are unable to learn something new simply on the basis of their general intelligence.
Thus, it can be said that second language acquisition should occur in the childhood days of an
individual’s life rather than in the adult phase.
Attitude
A second factor that influences the level of second language acquisition among the different
members of the society is that of the attitude of the concerned individuals who want to learn a
second language. According to McDonough (2017), the attitude and behavior of a person to an
aspect of life greatly determines the presence or absence of that aspect in the life of the
individual in question. In other words, it can be observed that if an individual has a positive
attitude towards the learning of a second language, then he or she would be able to imbibe the
language in themselves in an effective and efficient manner. However, on the other hand, as
opined by Kramsch (2017), it can be seen that a negative attitude and a reluctance on the part of
7LITERATURE REVIEW
an individual to not learn a second language would greatly act as a barrier to the acquisition of
such a language in that individual.
As argued by Escamilla and Grassi (2015), this factor can be observed to be flowing from
the Behaviorist Theory of second language acquisition theory. According to (), the Behaviorist t
theory opines that the attitude of a person to the external environment is significant in order to
understand how it influences the personality of the individual. In this respect, it can be observed
that of a person is more open to be influenced by the different environmental factors around him
or her, then chances are that the concerned individual would be interested to known more about
another language apart from the native one. As opined by van Vlack (2016), this is significant
because there should be considerable level of positive attitude towards the element of nature. On
the other hand, according to Flowerdew (2015), it can be observed that when a person is not so
much likely to be influenced by the external environment, there is a considerably less chance for
him or her to imbibe a new language within themselves. The external environment can be in the
form of various interactions with other members of the society, the conversation an individual
over hears between two people and the interactions that take place within the peer group of the
concerned individual.
Intelligence
A third factor which influences the aspect of second language acquisition among the
individuals is that of the intelligence level of the individual. According to Steffensen and
Kramsch (2017), the level of social cognitive development is not the same among all the
individuals of the world. Certain individuals are wired to be more intelligent than the others,
while certain people attain their intelligence from their life experiences. As stated by Cook
(2016), this is significant because the level of intelligence as held by a person largely influences
an individual to not learn a second language would greatly act as a barrier to the acquisition of
such a language in that individual.
As argued by Escamilla and Grassi (2015), this factor can be observed to be flowing from
the Behaviorist Theory of second language acquisition theory. According to (), the Behaviorist t
theory opines that the attitude of a person to the external environment is significant in order to
understand how it influences the personality of the individual. In this respect, it can be observed
that of a person is more open to be influenced by the different environmental factors around him
or her, then chances are that the concerned individual would be interested to known more about
another language apart from the native one. As opined by van Vlack (2016), this is significant
because there should be considerable level of positive attitude towards the element of nature. On
the other hand, according to Flowerdew (2015), it can be observed that when a person is not so
much likely to be influenced by the external environment, there is a considerably less chance for
him or her to imbibe a new language within themselves. The external environment can be in the
form of various interactions with other members of the society, the conversation an individual
over hears between two people and the interactions that take place within the peer group of the
concerned individual.
Intelligence
A third factor which influences the aspect of second language acquisition among the
individuals is that of the intelligence level of the individual. According to Steffensen and
Kramsch (2017), the level of social cognitive development is not the same among all the
individuals of the world. Certain individuals are wired to be more intelligent than the others,
while certain people attain their intelligence from their life experiences. As stated by Cook
(2016), this is significant because the level of intelligence as held by a person largely influences
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