Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition

This literature review explores the different factors that influence the development of second language acquisition among individuals. It discusses the impact of age, attitude, and intelligence on language learning.

Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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1.0 Over view
The main objective and aim of this paper is to understand how the different factors of the
ability of the teachers belonging to the English medium affect their capability to impart
mainstream curriculum to the English Acquisition Language learners. For this, the paper focuses
on the different fields of self efficacy, English medium instruction and professional development
as observed in the region of Abu Dhabi. This chapter explains in detail all the different areas by
taking a detailed and in-depth view of the opinions as presented by the various scholars and
thinkers. For this purpose, various secondary sources of literature have been considered such as
those of books, journals and academic articles.
1.1 Conceptual Framework
Education is one of the most important requirement for an individual. In this system of
education, the language of English holds a primary position as it allows people to effectively
communicate with each other (Lardiere, 2017). In this respect, the responsibility of a teacher is
vital as it is the teacher who ensures that the subjects are properly delegated to the students in a
way which is found to be understandable to them. The curriculum so developed enables the
concerned teachers to develop their self-efficacy. Furthermore, this helps in the professional
development of the individuals (Saville-Troike & Barto, 2016).
Curriculum development is the most important requirement in the field of education. This
provides a basic frame work to the teachers to understand what needs to be taught to the students
in a time bound manner. Richards (2015) is of the view that training in the field of language
development is vital for the improvement of the teachers. This would help the teachers to
increase their ability to deliver mainstream curriculum to the English additional learners.

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However, Song (2018), opines that different methods need to be applied in order to improve the
English language teaching of the teachers.
1.2 Second Language Acquisition
In the contemporary world, people are found to be speaking a host of languages. This has
mainly arisen as a response to the new age of globalization and digitization whereby the different
avenues providing such benefits of interacting with people belonging to the other parts of the
world have increased in number. According to Long (2017), this is significant to understand
because nowadays people are expected to know more than one language.
As argued by VanPatten and Benati (2015), it can be seen that the native language of an
individual is well developed within him or her from birth. This is a natural process that occurs.
However, as stated by Cook (2016), the other languages are acquired languages. This means that
such languages are not developed within an individual in a natural and inherent manner. Rather,
they have to be learned by such people concerned.
However, as opined by Flowerdew (2015), the factor of how such languages can be acquired
by an individual is always a concern for the entire society. Many theories have been proposed by
several psychologists and psycholinguistics of the contemporary world. One of the theories
which has been proposed by the scholars is that of Behaviourism. According to Escamilla and
Grassi (2015), the Behaviorist theory claims that a language is constructed within an individual
with the aid of exposure to the entire world. This brings in the issue of globalization which can
be perceived to occupy a dominating presence in the twenty first century. According to Kramsch
(2017), the theory of behavioralism states that the mind of a person is rather difficult to
understand as it is influenced heavily by psychology. It is observed, as stated by McDonough
(2017), that behavior is something which is more influenced by certain external factors of the

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environment. Larsen‐Freeman (2018) was of the opinion that a language is acquired by an
individual with the aid of something known as the stimulus response reward. Furthermore, he
was of the idea that languages can also be acquired by a child by imitating the words and actions
of their parents and establishing certain relationships between the objects observed by them and
the words learnt by them. Thus, in this sense, in the opinion of Hulstijn (2015), language is
highly dependent on the external environment, as stated by the authors advocating the
Behaviorist theory.
Another theory which talks about the development of second language acquisition among
the individuals of the society is that of the Constructivist. According to van Vlack (2016), the
theory of Constructivist states that language is a part of the social cognitive process. From this,
as opined by Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the theory given by Piaget comes to the forefront.
According to Piaget, the individuals, since birth passes through certain important stages of life
development. Such stages can be divided in to different categories depending upon the age of the
individual. In has been determined by Yoo (2016) that maturity of an individual is highly co-
related with their age. This flows from the fact that with the increase in age of an individual, their
life experiences also increase. According to Aldridge and Fraser (2016). Piaget believed that the
world which is perceived by a younger individual is considerably different than the one
perceived by an adult. As a consequence of this, a younger person has a greater potential of
accepting certain things such as the learning of a second language. According to Wang, Hall and
Rahimi (2015), their mind is still in the development stage and therefore, they have the ability to
understand and imbibe in them new information and knowledge.
However as argued by McLennan, McIlveen and Perera (2017), another theory which
discusses how second language acquisition occurs among the people of the community is that of

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social interactions. This theory of social interaction is based on the research study that has been
done by Jerome Bruner. The authors advocating this theory, as opined by Sezgin and Erdogan
(2015), believed that second language is acquired by an individual during the younger phase of
his or life as a result of all the interactions that place during this stage. Thus, it can be observed
that interactions form the main basis of the development and growth of second language
acquisition within a person. According to Maddux (2016), it is stated that the level of interaction
that is done by an individual highly influences his or her language. This is important to
understand because as per the theory of Social Interactions, the .level of informal communication
done by an individual aids them to relate the worldly objects with certain foreign language words
and ideas.
A forth theory that is propounded by Noam Choamsky in 1959 that tries to understand the
importance and manner of second language acquisition is that of the theory of Nativism.
Choamsky opined that a child is able to learn many languages by being associated with the
environment himself or herself. Thus, according to Nurlu (2017), it is believed that Choamsky
stated that an young individual is not only able to learn and understand the first language by
being associated with the environment. Rather, it is possible to learn many different things by
observing nature, one of which is other languages. As argued by Horvitz et al. (2015), it can be
observed that the acquisition of a language is quite different from the general intelligence skill of
a person. This is in sharp contrast with the theory of cognitive development as opined by Piaget.
According to Schunk and Bursuck (2016), Piaget opined that the development of the cognitive
ability of an individual highly influences his or her ability to acquire a second language in an
effective manner. In the opinion of Choamsky, as stated by Bruning and Kauffman (2015), the
adult speech with regard to a second language degenerate as compared to the second language as

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spoken by a younger individual. Thus, it can be observed that the theory of Nativism focuses on
the factor of nature and environment while analysing how it influences the development of
second language in an individual.
1.3 Factors influencing the development of second language acquisition among the
individuals
Second language acquisition occurs through a variety of means and ways. However, it is
first important to understand what the different factors which influence the development of
second language acquisition among the individuals of the society are. According to Morris,
Usher and Chen (2017), it is only after the comprehensive analysis of such factors that they can
be properly utilized in order to develop a structure of ensuring the second language acquisition
among the children and other members of the community.
Age
The first factor which influences the level and efficiency of second language acquisition
among the people of the world is the factor of age. According to Bartimote-Aufflick et al.
(2016), Piaget was the first psychologist to understand how age impacts the process of social
cognitive development among the individuals of the society. Piaget was of the idea that the first
stage of a child’s development is known as the sensory motor stage. According to (), this stage
signifies the development of the mental stage of an individual. In other words, the child observes
the environment and learns from it about all the different aspects of the world. In the opinion of
Yoo (2016), this is quite aligned with the theory of as advocated by the Behaviorist and that of
the Nativism. Thus, Piaget’s understanding of the stage of social cognition in an individual is

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significant because it is able to validate most o the theories related with second language
acquisition.
Furthermore, according to Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), the factor of age can be seen to
be influencing the aspect of second language learning through the development of experiences.
This theory flows from the one propounded by Piaget. In the words of van Vlack (2016), it is
quite difficult for an adult to learn a new language and the words and grammar, as compared to
the capability of a child. This is due to the fact that the cognition level develops in a faster stage
in a child rather than in an adult. According to Hulstijn (2015), the mind of an adult stops
growing after the age of eighteen years of age. This marks the end of the adolescent period. After
this stage, everything depends upon the experiences of the individuals which aids them to
survive in the world. However, as stated by Larsen‐Freeman (2018), this means that after this
stage, they are unable to learn something new simply on the basis of their general intelligence.
Thus, it can be said that second language acquisition should occur in the childhood days of an
individual’s life rather than in the adult phase.
Attitude
A second factor that influences the level of second language acquisition among the different
members of the society is that of the attitude of the concerned individuals who want to learn a
second language. According to McDonough (2017), the attitude and behavior of a person to an
aspect of life greatly determines the presence or absence of that aspect in the life of the
individual in question. In other words, it can be observed that if an individual has a positive
attitude towards the learning of a second language, then he or she would be able to imbibe the
language in themselves in an effective and efficient manner. However, on the other hand, as
opined by Kramsch (2017), it can be seen that a negative attitude and a reluctance on the part of

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an individual to not learn a second language would greatly act as a barrier to the acquisition of
such a language in that individual.
As argued by Escamilla and Grassi (2015), this factor can be observed to be flowing from
the Behaviorist Theory of second language acquisition theory. According to (), the Behaviorist t
theory opines that the attitude of a person to the external environment is significant in order to
understand how it influences the personality of the individual. In this respect, it can be observed
that of a person is more open to be influenced by the different environmental factors around him
or her, then chances are that the concerned individual would be interested to known more about
another language apart from the native one. As opined by van Vlack (2016), this is significant
because there should be considerable level of positive attitude towards the element of nature. On
the other hand, according to Flowerdew (2015), it can be observed that when a person is not so
much likely to be influenced by the external environment, there is a considerably less chance for
him or her to imbibe a new language within themselves. The external environment can be in the
form of various interactions with other members of the society, the conversation an individual
over hears between two people and the interactions that take place within the peer group of the
concerned individual.
Intelligence
A third factor which influences the aspect of second language acquisition among the
individuals is that of the intelligence level of the individual. According to Steffensen and
Kramsch (2017), the level of social cognitive development is not the same among all the
individuals of the world. Certain individuals are wired to be more intelligent than the others,
while certain people attain their intelligence from their life experiences. As stated by Cook
(2016), this is significant because the level of intelligence as held by a person largely influences

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the way the world is perceived by that individual. For instance, some intelligent people may be
more open to the idea of learning new things in life so that they can challenge themselves.
However, as opined by VanPatten and Benati (2015), many averagely intelligent people of the
society face a lot of challenges and obstacles in their life which they struggle with in order to
solve them. As a consequence of this, they do not want to take on new challenges which would
make their life more difficult.
Thus, as argued by van Vlack (2016), it can be observed that the intelligent people of the
society have a tendency to learn new things and always be associated with a newer avenue. This
in turn, aids them significantly during the time when they want to acquire a second language
learning. In the words of Steffensen and Kramsch (2017), an intelligent human being is able to
understand and grasp many new concepts and ideas during all the phases of his or her life. Thus,
it can be seen that an intelligent person would be effectively able to imbibe a second language
within oneself in a faster manner when compared to the other individuals in the society.
Motivation
Motivation is termed to be one of the most influential factors which affects the element of
second language acquisition among the people of the world. According to Lardiere (2017),
motivation refers to the desire and ability of a person to achieve something in life. Thus, from
this it can be understood that people who are motivated are more likely to be engaged in the
learning of a second language than the people who are not properly motivated. In this respect,
according to (), the factor of motivation can be sub-divided in to two different categories.
The first is the concept of integrative motivation. According to Saville-Troike and Barto
(2016), this refers to the condition where a learner is able to learn a second language simply due

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to the fact that he or she is interested in the field of study. Furthermore, such a type of motivation
arises because the concerned individual is desirous of communicating effectively with the people
of other cultures and traditions. Thus, integrative motivations flows from the fact that an
individual wants to learn it for his or her own self desires and their fulfilment.
A second kind of motivation according to Richards (2015), is known as instrumental
motivation. The main objective of this kind of motivation is to be able to further the career
prospects of oneself such as being able to find a better career and a better life opportunity. Thus,
in the words of (), it can be seen that instrumental motivation is for the professional gain of the
individual in question.
Teaching Strategies
A fifth factor which influences the factor of second language acquisition is that of the
teaching strategies that are followed by the teachers of the society. According to Song (2018),
the level of education that is imbibed within an individual is highly influenced by the manner in
which the curriculum is imparted to the individuals. In this sense, it can be noted, as per the
opinion of Long (2017), that the different age group categories of people needs to be taught in
various ways.
For instance, it can be seen that the younger children needs to be taught with the aid of
presentation and demonstrations. In the words of Richards (2015), this is highly related to the
factor of social cognitive development theory as espoused by Piaget. He stated that a child is
more aware about the different objects present in the world. On the other hand, as stated by
Saville-Troike and Barto (2016), the adult population is more versatile and comfortable in

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hearing lectures. They have the ability to comprehend the words as spoken by their teachers and
hence, less presentation can be used while teaching to them.
However, as argued by (), the factor of demonstrations is important in the field of education
as one of the main teaching strategies because education can be effectively imparted through
graphical representations. According to Lardiere (2017), in the contemporary world, less
emphasis is being paid to the strategy of lecture method of teaching and more emphasis is being
paid to the strategy of using diagrammatical representation of the information. This is mainly
done in order to provide a visual and audio aid to the students so that the knowledge is efficiently
implemented in the subconscious mind of the concerned individuals.
The teaching strategy is considered to be important, in the words of VanPatten and Benati
(2015), for second language acquisition because it aids the students to have a visual
understanding of the language they are learning. This enables them to relate their words with the
worldly objects in an effective manner. The understanding of the language and how it is used is
also promoted with the use of an effective teaching strategy. It depends upon the concerned
teachers to determine which teaching strategy is to be used in order to make the students viable
for acquiring a second language. Thus, it can be seen that teaching strategies play an influential
role in the factor of second language acquisition.
1.4 English as a Medium of Instruction
The universities all across the globe are facing a massive amount of internationalization
process. English as a medium of instruction has been gaining a lot of popularity because of the
increasing number of foreign students. English as a medium of instruction is used in teaching
academic subjects to the part of the population for whom English is not a first language (Bygate,

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Skehan & Swain, 2013). When English is used as a medium of instructions for the students
whose first language is not English, then the teacher usually assumes two outcomes, firstly that
the English proficiency of the student will increase and the normalizing the use of English.
The first assumption is not fulfilled or there are no scientific evidences that the first
assumption is true, the second assumption is also not true. The growth of English as a second
language depends from one country to another. Some countries more international students than
other, hence more courses are taught in English. There are many practical reasons behind doing
it, most of the academic journals and research are written in English, and hence in order to read
them, the person needs to have a good grip over the language (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014).
If the student has to progress then she/he needs to learn the language so that they read the
important research papers. A lot many technical field also require the person to know a certain
basic level of English, hence the medium of delivering a lecture will help the student diversify
their knowledge as a lot of technical knowledge also requires the person to the language in-
depth.
It is also said the knowing English will speed up the process of social and economic
mobility as there are a lot of people who think that knowing English gives them a mileage over
others who do not have a command over the language. According to many universities,
switching to English as a medium of instruction will also improve the student’s prospects of job
(Weigle, 2013). The companies who want to hire the new candidates always make sure that the
candidate is well versed in English.
1.4.1 Impact of Using English as a Medium of Instruction
According to Crawford, T., & Candlin (2013), the impact of using English as a medium
of instruction is vast, students not only learn diverse content but also they have more options to

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choose form. As stated by (), there is also a doubt about the factor that whether English as
medium of instruction actually helps the student learn a lot about the language. They might be
able to get a basic idea of the knowledge but whether they actually are benefitted from it is a
question that still has not been answered. Few studies have shown that using English as a
medium of instruction not only helps the students learn the language properly but also have
better grasp of the concept that is being taught by the teacher.
On the other hand, as stated by Gass (2014) here are some studies that have shown that
using English a medium of instruction has not helped the students much, because their of
knowledge of the language was not much and not knowing the language properly did not help
the students, so firstly an in-depth idea of the knowledge is required then only the students will
be able to grasp the concepts that are primarily based on the languag. In many Chinese
universities, students take the English language class and Chinese language classes
simultaneously, so that they can have a better understanding of the subjects that are being taught
in English (Dewaele, & Ip, 2013). However, the students that took parallel English classes also
noted that knowing the native language have helped them more than since a lot of information
was given in Chinese and not English. Students whose knowledge of the language is very less
they have a difficult time coping up with the courses that are taught in English.
1.5 Strategies used by the teachers to deliver mainstream education through the
English medium
According to (), the teachers who use English a medium of instruction mostly have
different first language, for example a teacher in China or Japan who uses English as a medium
of instruction are mostly Chinese or Japanese people who have grown up in the country with the
native language as their first language, hence the teacher also has to learn a lot about the

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language before being comfortable enough to use it as medium of instruction for varied subjects.
The teachers also have to go through English training for a prolonged period of time. This is the
only thing that the teacher shares with the students, both of them have a different second
language.
According to Saville-Troike & Barto (2016), the first strategy the teacher needs to
undertake is to learn the language and have an in-depth knowledge of the language before they
inside the classroom and teach a bunch of new students who are not well versed with the
language. The teachers need to be fluent and learn a lot of things before teaching the students.
The fact the teacher and the student have the same native language; the students find it easy to
communicate with the teacher in case of any problem that they might have with the language.
As opined by Cohen (2014), the second strategy that has to be adopted by the teacher is
that the teacher has to keep in mind that the student is not only a learner of the content that is
being taught in English but also of the language itself, hence the teacher needs to make sure that
at first they teach the student about the language and then go into teaching them about the
concept of the subject that is being taught in English. The teacher should ensure that each and
every student understands the subject that is being taught, and for that they need to make sure
that language of English is clear to them, otherwise all the effort that the teacher will put into
teaching a subject in English will go to waste.
The third strategy that the teacher can adopt is to encourage the student to talk, express
their view and doubts inside the classroom, as it is a new subject and a new language that is
being taught hence the teacher needs to make sure that the students are interested enough to talk
about the things that are unclear to them (Luk & Lin, 2015). The teacher should encourage the
student to converse in class otherwise the teacher has no way of understanding what the students

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thinking about and whether they are understanding anything at all. It is the responsibility of the
teacher to understand the progress and interest of the student. The class should be a two way
road, the teacher should not be the only speaking, the students’ needs to participate as well, and
talk about all the problems that they are facing with the subject as well as the language.
The third strategy that has to be adopted by the teacher is making the students write a
lot (Hyland, 2019). Writing helps the student understand the language as well as the subject in-
depth. The teacher has to make to the student write about every lesson that is being taught in
class. Writing not only helps the student understand the language of English but also the subject
that is being taught in English. The student needs to write regularly in every class then only the
language will become easier for them as they have a different native language than English.
As opined by Lee, Quinn & Valdés (2013), the forth strategy will be used by the teachers
who teach a lot of technical subjects like mathematics and science. Especially in science, there
are a number of technical terms that has to be understood by the student. These technical
terms usually have a different pronunciation in the native language, so in English they will some
different pronunciation. These have to be taught carefully to the students. The students need to
be able read, write and pronounce these technical terms otherwise while giving an exam or
anything the students will not be able to pass it. The teachers should take special care and teach
these technical details to the students.
The fifth strategy that has to be implemented by the teacher is to allocate a lot of group
activities to the students (Gass, 2017). The students should be put in a group and then ask to do
different activities. These activities should be about the subjects that are being taught in class,
encouraging the student to do practical projects always helps them understand the topic in a
detailed manner as they are doing it. This will encourage the students to talk to the peers in

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English, which will help them learn the language a talking to each other in English is the best
way to learn the language. A group activity always helps the student understand the subject and
the language in a thorough manner.
The sixth strategy that the teacher needs to implement is not use difficult English while
teaching the students, the teachers might have an in-depth knowledge of the language but for the
students it is a completely different subject hence the teachers while teaching the students should
not use complicated English while teaching the students (Leung, Davison & Mohan, 2014).
There are certain terms in English that might seem normal for a person who knows the language
but for a new learner this might not seem difficult and they might not express the fact the
teachers way of communication is difficult. The teacher should teach the subject in simple and
easy to understand English and not use in any complex words at least in the beginning in the
course, once the student gets used they might not be able to grasp the concept.
According to Fulcher (2014), the seventh strategy that should be adopted the teacher is
questioning the students, at regular intervals the student needs to be questioned, whether he or
she is understanding the e topic at all or the language for that matter. There should be proper
interviews that is be conducted by the teacher, the teacher should ask question related to the
subject to check whether the student is understanding anything at all. These should be like small
quizzes where the student will not feel terrified. The teacher also has to make sure that the
students are not scared about the quiz or the test. These should be just to test their knowledge and
not intimidate them. However, these quizzes are not formal examinations and just something to
understand where the students stand.
As stated by Cook (2016), the eights strategy that should be implemented by the teacher
is using signposting for big essays. If the teacher has to teach the student a big essay, then the

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essay should have proper signposting for the students to understand what the key words of the
essay. As the language is new to them so in order to learn a long essay they need to be able to
understand what the main points are, hence the essay should have proper signposting that has to
be done by the teacher.
The ninth strategy that has to be implemented by the teacher is that if a new vocabulary is
to be taught to the student, there has to be a proper introduction to the new vocabulary that
has to be given by the teacher (Nunan, 2015). The introduction should cover the meaning of the
word and the phrases that uses the word. The student needs to understand in detail what the new
word is about before going into detail about the word. If needed the new words need to be
translated by the teacher. The translation is important as the word might be easy to grasp and
translating them into their native language might help the student to understand the word better.
1.6 Self efficacy of the teachers
The element of self efficacy of the teachers refer to the confidence and ability of a teacher
to effectively impart education to his or her students. According to Menon and Sadler (2016),
this confidence of the teacher is paramount in the field of teaching because the information and
knowledge given out by a teacher shapes the character and personality of the students. It is the
main responsibility of a teacher to guide the students to their own path of success. This depends
to a great extent, as stated by Prior et al. (2016), on the level of capability of a teacher to teach.
This sows that being a teacher is not easy. One is always required to keep on updating oneself
with regard to the addition of new information in a particular field. Furthermore, the information
needs to be doled out in such a manner that it can be effectively imbibed by the students.
According to Vaz et al. (2015), the development and growth of a student can be judged from the
instances when he or she is able to implement such information and knowledge gained in their

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personal lives in order to solve their problems. Thus, as stated by Schunk and DiBenedetto
(2016), if a teacher is able to portray confidence while teaching in a class, then the students
would most likely be inspired and thereby, be able to use the knowledge acquired to solve their
issues in life. According to Roberts and Atkins (2015), this is entire objective of education, that
is to make people capable to handle their life troubles.
1.7 Factors affecting the self efficacy of the teachers
There are several factors which impact the level of confidence of the teachers to impart
effective education to the students. This situation is known as self efficacy. Self efficacy is
dependent on several external and internal factors such as those of making the teachers real stake
holders within the educational institutions, praising and complimenting the good characters of
the teachers, ensure collaboration and effective communication among the different teachers who
are working in a particular educational institutions, acknowledging the various hardships that are
faced by a teacher and providing certain professional developmental training programs to the
teachers so that they can improve upon themselves.
Making the teachers the stake holders within an educational institutions
The teachers are the important constituting units within any educational institutions. They
are the ones who are charged with the responsibility of imparting vital education and knowledge
to the student. Thus, according to Hynds (2016), it can be observed that no educational
institutions would have been able to function until and unless the teachers were recruited. Thus,
as stated by Minor (2016), this points to the importance of teachers within the field of education.
There are various ways to ensure that the teachers remain satisfied in their place of work
and does not feel the need to leave. One of such factors is that of the issue of stake holders.

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According to Schunk and Bursuck (2016), it is observed that teachers are considered to be
recruited by a school or other educational institutions simply for the purpose of teaching. They
are not given any special place in the administration of the institutions. As observed by Horvitz
et al. (2015), this severely affects the level of efficiency of the teachers as they are not given any
benefits besides their salary in their place of work. According to Nurlu (2017), while salaries are
important for any employee, a teacher needs to feel integrated in to the part of the educational
sphere in order to ensure that they can work in an efficient and effective manner.
In this sense, as stated by Shaffer and Thomas-Brown (2015), the teachers need to be given a
voice of their own so that they can voice their own opinions within the school they work in.
Besides imparting knowledge, a lot of activities are done by the teachers such as organizing the
cultural festivities of the region and organizing several important co-curricular activities such as
sports. All these are important as they aim for the all-round development of the students.
According to Carpenter (2015), a student needs to develop his or her physical ability as well as
emotional intelligence. This can only be brought about by the hard work and dedication of the
teachers.
From this it can be observed, as stated by McLennan, McIlveen and Perera (2017), that the
teachers have an important and crucial role to play within the field of education. As a result, the
position of the teachers need to be improved in their place of work. According to Wang, Hall and
Shaffer and Thomas-Brown (2015), this can be done by ensuring that teachers become a stake
holders in their place of employment. In other words, they need to be able to hold important
posts and have access to responsible power in order to perform their work in a better manner and
be confident about themselves.
Complementing the work of the teachers

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A second factor which influences the self efficacy of the teachers is that of
complimenting and praising the work done by the teachers. According to Aldridge and Fraser
(2016), it can be observed that when the work done by an individual is acknowledged and
praised, then they become further motivated to work hard. This is essential to understand as it
directly influences the psychological set up of the teachers concerned. As stated by Wang, Hall
and Rahimi (2015), this external factor can be influenced by the activities of the administration
and the students both.
With respect to the administration, as argued by McLennan, McIlveen and Perera (2017),
it is important that they are able to appreciate the hard work done by the teachers. The job role of
an educator is quite difficult, especially in the field of second language acquisition. They are
tasked with the difficult responsibility of making a student fluent in the language which is
foreign to them. According to Sezgin and Erdogan (2015), this is very different from the other
subjects taught in educational institutions since they only consist of facts to be learnt. Learning a
language is more difficult as it has a different dimension. In the words of Maddux (2016), the
praise of the administration towards the work done by the teachers would aid in the boost of their
self efficacy level.
However, as argued by Nurlu (2017), the support of the students is considered to be more
important for boosting the self efficacy of the teachers. The teachers are primarily tasked with
the responsibility of imparting important education to the students which aids in their personal
and character development. As a result, it was observed by Horvitz et al. (2015), that the teachers
have a significant and preponderant role to play in the life of a student. The praise and
compliment that is received by the teachers from such students highly motivate the educators and
make them happy, as per the opinion of Schunk and Bursuck (2016). In other words, when a

20LITERATURE REVIEW
teacher gets to know that they have been able to make a student fluent in a second language, who
is appreciative to them for their hard work, acts as the greatest source of strength for the
concerned teachers.
Ensuring collaboration among the teachers
A third factor which aids in the development of self efficacy of the teachers in the field of
second language acquisition is that of providing opportunities for collaboration among the
teachers of an educational institutions. According to Bruning and Kauffman (2015), each teacher
is assigned a particular subject which he or she is required to teach. However, it is observed that
in many cases the teachers teaching in a same institution hardly get the opportunity to interact
with each other. This is quite problematic according to Bruning and Kauffman (2015) since the
teachers have no one to discuss their professional problems with.
This problem of disassociation severely hampers the confidence level of the teachers.
According to Morris, Usher and Chen (2017), the teachers need to understand the psychological
set up of a class before they can determine the teaching strategy to be undertaken for the
effective teaching of a second language to the students. Thus, there is a need for collaboration to
be ensured among the teachers of an institution.
As argued by Bartimote-Aufflick et al. (2016), the element of collaboration is required in
order to promote confidence among the teachers and make them aware about the needs and
desires of the students. Collaboration can occur in the form of promoting the weekly conference
of the teachers, ensuring that they have the chance to talk about the needs of the students when
they meet. In the case of second language acquisition the psychological factors of an individual
highly determines their level of acceptance of the language that is being taught. Thus, if the

21LITERATURE REVIEW
psychological character of a student is understood effectively, then it becomes highly possible
for a teacher to impart second language education in an efficient manner. This further adds to the
confidence level experienced by the teachers.
Acknowledging the hardships faced by the teachers
A forth factor which impacts the level of self efficacy of the teachers is that of
acknowledging the hard ships as faced by the teachers. The job role of a teacher is quite
challenging. They are required to mould the future generation of the world through the
knowledge and information which is at their disposal.
However, this moulding of the character of the students depends to a great extent, as stated
by Menon and Sadler (2017), on the way knowledge is imparted to the student. The hard ships as
faced by the teachers can be observed in this respect. For instance, when a teacher is required to
teach a second language to the students, then they are required to use a lot of demonstrations and
presentations. Lecture methods are usually not preferable in the field of second language
acquisition. According to Prior et al. (2017), the second language is taught to the students by
making them aware about the different worldly objects which are related to the words that have
been taught to them. All of this entail quite a difficult situation for the teachers as they have to
form the proper presentation in a lucid manner as possible so that it can be easily discerned by
the concerned students.
As argued by Vaz et al. (2015), if the teachers are given a formal recognition and
acknowledgement for all the hard work that is done by them for furthering the life chances of the
student, then it goes a long way of keeping the teachers satisfied. A teacher is considered to be
only desirous of receiving appreciation from the people who are involved with them. According

22LITERATURE REVIEW
to Menon and Sadler (2016), a teacher is has the responsibility towards the entire future
generation. Acknowledging this immense obligation of the teachers would greatly motivate them
and satisfy them that their work towards the betterment of the society is being recognized.
Providing training opportunities to the development of the teachers
A final factor which can be discussed as seen to be influencing the level of self efficacy
among the teachers is that of providing training opportunities to the concerned educators.
According to Bartimote-Aufflick et al. (2016), training opportunities are vital and indispensable
within any organization as it makes the people aware about the vision and goals of their place of
work. Furthermore, as stated by Morris, Usher and Chen (2017), if training opportunities are
provided to the teachers, then they would be able to understand how to effectively impart their
education to the student by becoming aware of the needs of the student and the different ways in
which such education can be imparted.
The provision of such training opportunities is quite significant for the second language
acquisition learners. The teaching of a second language is quite difficult on the part of both the
teacher and learning, on behalf of the students. If a teacher is provided with proper training, then
he or she would become aware that besides using the traditional method of lecturing, the
contemporary presentation method can prove to be more effective. This is needed for the field of
second language acquisition as the teachers need to make the students aware about the worldly
objects and relate them to the second language teaching.
1.8 The professional development of the teachers
Professional development is an essential factor for all the teachers. In the education
sector, the term professional development deals with specialized training, advanced professional

23LITERATURE REVIEW
learning or formal education in order to help the administrators, other educators and the teachers
for improving their professional knowledge, effectiveness, competence and skill (Moon, 2013).
When professional development is used in the context of education without qualification,
additional explanation or any specific examples, it may be quite difficult to precisely determine
the term professional development. In practice, the term professional development for the
teachers encompasses a broad range of formats and topics. Professional development are usually
funded by the schools, state budgets, district and programs or supported by private funding or by
foundation grant. They range from one-day conference to weeks of workshop and other
multiyear advanced degree programs. Professional development can be delivered through online
platform, in person, during the school hours and through face-to-face interactions or through
group discussions. These programs of professional development are usually arranged by the
school educators or by other consultants or companies that is being hired by a school or district.
In recent times, national and the state policies are focusing on the issue of the quality of teachers,
ability of every teacher for improving the learning of the students and meet the expected
standards in terms of performance. For example : The No Child Left Behind Act, provides a
formal explanation of what high quality professional development should be like and requires
support from the schools by reporting the percentage of their high quality teacher as per the
definition of the law. The law suggests that professional development should be comprehensive,
have an intensive approach and sustained in order to improve the quality of teaching and in turn
raising student achievement. Professional development is the primary mechanism that every
school can use in order to help the teachers to continuously learn and improve their knowledge
and skill. This topic in the recent times has been extensively researched. Many initiatives,
programs and strategies have been developed and implemented in order to improve the

24LITERATURE REVIEW
effectiveness and quality of professional development for the teachers. On the contrary, few
educators do not encourage the need or importance of professional development, learning
programs, strategies and other initiatives. If the professional development is designed abruptly,
the teachers find it irrelevant to their teaching needs and day-to-day professional responsibilities
(Darling-Hammond, Hyler & Gardner, 2017). In addition, leaders in the schools encounter many
challenges while selecting and providing opportunities in professional development. One
common issue for all the teachers is finding enough time during the school days to take part in
the professional development. Another very common complication is securing enough fund for
professional development, particularly during the time when school budgets are being cut and
tight. Thus, effective professional development enables teachers to develop their skill and
knowledge in order to deal with the challenges, the students are facing. Professional
development cannot be effective unless it helps the teachers to improve their instruction and
causes administrators to become better school leaders.
1.9 Factors affecting the professional development of the teachers
There are many different factors which influence the professional development of a
teacher. According to (), a teacher is considered to be the most important person in the life of a
student as he or she has a preponderant role to play in the future development of a student. In
order to ensure this, the professional development of the teachers is required. The factors
influencing the professional development of the teachers can be stated to be that of providing
training opportunities to the teachers, ensuring that the teachers are aware about their
requirements from the students, bringing in modernization and change in the administration of
the educational institution concerned and ensuring that the teachers have access to the
information that is needed by them.

25LITERATURE REVIEW
Training and development
The first factor that influences the elements of professional development is training and
development of the teachers in order to upgrade the knowledge of the content and in turn the
pedagogical skills of the teachers. In the recent times, teachers are expected to be more flexible
and adaptable to newer strategies and technologies. According to DeMonte (2013),
administrators are updating and changing the learning standards in order to meet the learning
expectation of the students. Training and development help in boosting the confidence of the
teachers so that they can effectively influence others. It also enables the teachers in effectively
communicating with the students, the staffs and the parents and improve the teacher-student
relationship. According to the social learning theory, teachers should include both social and
cognitive aspects of learning in order to successfully influence the professional development.
Proper training helps the teachers in providing proper presentations for the students to
understand the subject matter and in turn help in the acquisition of second language. Students can
very easily relate to the audio-visual representations and improve their knowledge of the topic.
According to Stewart (2014) training also helps the teacher to work together in a team which in
turn provides the students a better opportunity to participate in the process of learning and
improve their skill set. Networking with other teachers and solving the issues together leads to
success and moves a step towards professional development. Training and development also
helps the teachers in cultivating their imagination and be more creative. This in turn can help in
coming up with newer ideas to keep the students engaged in learning. According to Bayar (2014)
proper training of the teachers helps them to set an example for the students as leaders or
mentors who would guide them in the right direction. Training and development also helps the
teachers to be more organized and prepare for the unknown. Teachers’ dedication towards

26LITERATURE REVIEW
professional development encourages students for better learning (Thackwray, 2014). Training
and development also help modern teachers to find engaging resources as it is essential to find
interesting and attractive materials for the students, which will keep them, interested in the
process of learning. This might require the use of new technology and applications and
connecting to the fellow teachers. This in turn helps the students in taking part in the class
discussions and give them a competitive edge in the process of learning, understanding and
interpreting. Teachers becoming aware of these methods of engaging student through proper
learning and development automatically contributes to the professional development. According
to Leberman and McDonald (2016) modern teachers can also help the students think critically,
be adaptable, creative, flexible, passionate and innovative, juts by inspiring them (Whitehurst,
2002, March). They can also motivate the students in solving problems and self-refection. Thus,
training and development helps in the overall growth of the education sector.
Requirements of the students
The teachers have their responsibility towards the students who have been given under
their care. According to Roberts and Atkins (2015), this is significant to understand because a
teacher guides the development of the personality of the future generation. In this sense, it has
been observed by Darling-Hammond, Hyler and Gardner (2017) that it is essential for a teacher
to be aware about the needs and demands of the students.
According to Kennedy (2016), a teacher does not only have a formal responsibility
towards a child. He or she is required to be present in the life of a student in an informal way as
well. As argued by Korthagen (2017), the students till the age of eighteen are in the process of
understanding themselves. In this sense, it can be seen that they require the aid of their parents
and teacher in order to develop themselves and understand their wants. The teachers therefore, as

27LITERATURE REVIEW
stated by Girvan, Conneely and Tangney (2016), need to be aware of this internal dilemma of the
students.
According to Kyndt et al. (2016), this requires the professional development of the
teachers. According to the Social Interaction Theory advocated in the field of pedagogy, it has
been observed that the knowledge of the students increases to a significant level by the process
of interaction that occurs in their life. In other words, according to Vangrieken et al. (2017), it
can be seen that if a student is able to interact more with a professionally developed teacher, then
it likely that he or she is able to get more knowledge and a better understanding of their
requirement. This, in turn, would help the teachers to effectively impart their teaching on second
language to the students concerned.
Change in the administration of the educational institutions
A third factor that influences the element of professional development of the teachers is
that of the modernization and change in the administration of the educational institutions they are
enrolled in. According to Macià and García (2016), the manner in which a teacher behaves in
depends to a large extent on the environment that he or she works in.
In the words of Gaudin and Chaliès (2015), professional development refers to the
situation whereby a teacher is required to behave in a professional capacity. This means that they
have to abide by several code of conduct as laid down in their place of work. Furthermore, they
have to ensure that they can positively influence the life of the students in a informal and formal
manner both. However, as opined by Whitworth and Chiu (2015), such a level of informality
should not be crossed by a significant margin.

28LITERATURE REVIEW
Thus, in such a scenario, as stated by Allen and Penuel (2015), it can be seen that the
change in administration would contribute to a large extent to the professional development of
the teachers. It is the responsibility of the administration to lay down certain guidelines which
needs to be abided by both the teachers and the students when they are on the premises. This has
a significant impact on the second language acquisition learning process as imparted by the
teachers. For instance, if a teacher is allowed to take a class for a considerable period of time
where the students are required to pay their complete attention, then such a professional
atmosphere would greatly impact the level of development of second language among the
students concerned.
Content focus of the teachers
A forth factor which is seen to be influencing the element of professional development
among the teachers is that of ensuring that the teachers have an easy access to the content matter
of their subject focus. According to Körkkö, Kyrö-Ämmälä and Turunen (2016), for any teacher,
information is essential as without having access to such an information, they would not be able
to keep themselves updated with the changing times of the society.
Content enrichment is needed by both the teachers as well as the students. However, as
argued by Desimone and Pak (2017), it can be seen that content is more important for the
teachers. They are the ones who are charged with the responsibility of effectively imparting
information in the form of knowledge to the students within an educational institutions. As stated
by Olsen (2015), information is available in plenty in the modern twenty first century. However,
they need to be efficiently doled out to the students so that they can understand the information
which is given to them. Often times, it is observed that knowledge is taken at a different pace by
the various individuals of the society. In accordance to (), thus it can be seen that if content is

29LITERATURE REVIEW
properly explained to the students concerned then they would be effectively be able to utilize it
in solving their problems as experienced in real life.
As argued by Escriva-Boulley (2018), therefore, the content with respect to the second
language acquisition field is vital. The teacher concerned needs to be aware of the various
content related to this field so that it can be imparted to the student in a comprehensive and
detailed manner. The understanding of the students is more important as without the subjective
understanding of the language, they would not be able to apply it in their daily lives.
Thus, it can be concluded that the various factors of professional development of the
teachers, have a significant influence on the second language acquisition learning as given to the
students. The professional nature of the teachers enable them to reach out to the students and aid
and support them in their education. In this respect, as opined by (), it can be seen that the
professional attitude of the teachers aids them to deliver the mainstream education to the English
language learners for whom English is the second language.
1.10 Effectiveness of the professional development programs for the English
medium teachers
The information that has been gathered in the above mentioned sources of literature
review proves that the there are many important factors that influence the ability of the English
medium teachers to deliver mainstream curriculum to the English Additional learners. In this
sense, this section of the research paper focuses on the different elements of various theories
related to the field of second language acquisition, self efficacy, English medium instructions,
and professional development.

30LITERATURE REVIEW
In the information collected, it can be observed that the there are many different factors
which influence the level of second language acquisition among the students themselves.
According to Koh, Chai and Lim (2017), the learning of second language is quite difficult as
language is something that develops in an inherent manner within an individual. According to
the theory of Nativism, as stated by Patton, Parker and Tannehill (2015), an individual interacts
with the environment in order to learn a language. This environment consist of the members of
his or her family, the people of the society and the individuals which form the peer group. It is
through the process of social interaction that the fluency within a language is developed. Thus, it
can be seen that there is a close yet differentiated relationship between the theories of social
interaction and Nativism.
For a teacher of English language to teach the language of English to the students whose
second language is English, it is quite difficult. According to Avidov-Ungar (2016), it can be
observed that English appears to be a tough language for many students. First, they are already
well-versed in their own native language. They already start to associate the different objects and
situations of the world with their own language. As opined by Yoshikawa (2015), it is seen that it
becomes confusing on the part fo the students when they try to understand such worldly beings
in some other language which is foreign to them.
Under such circumstances, certain strategies of teaching can be devised by the teachers in
deliver the mainstream curriculum in the language of English to those students who have English
as a second language. In this sense, one of the strategies under taken is to encourage the students
to speak more frequently in the English langue while interacting with other people. According to
Kohli (2015), this can prove to be quite effective as with the regular interactions, the students can
learn from their mistakes and rectify them over time.

31LITERATURE REVIEW
With regard to the importance of self efficacy, it can be observed as stated by van
Aalderen‐Smeets and Walma van der Molen (2015), that the confidence level of the teachers of
quite important while imparting education to the students. This condition is known as self
efficacy. In the field of English language acquisition, often times it can be seen that a teacher of
English medium is required to impart the learnings to the students of a foreign country. In such
circumstances, as argued by Laurillard (2016), the confidence level of the teacher is extremely
important in the sense that the students should be made aware that the teacher is confident of
what is being taught to them.
All of these factors together contribute to the development of the issue of professional
development among the teachers. According to Sedova, Sedlacek and Svaricek (2016),
professional development refers to the situation where the teachers are expected to behave in
their professional capacity. As seen in the section of professional development, it is observed that
there are many factors which influences its growth in the teachers. Professional development is
important for the English medium teachers as it provides them with a guidance and frame work
as to how to process with their responsibility towards the second language learners in an efficient
manner. Thus, it can be concluded that professional development programs are quite significant
and effective for the English medium teachers.
1.11 Summary
To summarize, this chapter provides an over view about the different sources of
secondary literature which have been referenced in a comprehensive manner in order to
understand the objective of the research paper. The aim of the research is to examine the various
factors that influence the ability of the English medium teachers’ ability to deliver mainstream
curriculum to the English additional learners by focusing on the self-efficacy of the teachers, the

32LITERATURE REVIEW
English medium instructions and professional development in Abu Dhabi. This has been looked
in to in a detailed manner in this chapter.

33LITERATURE REVIEW
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