Liver Damage from Plastic Pollution on Australians

This study evaluates the environmental risk assessment from plastic pollution in water bodies and oceans in Australia, contributing to the health outcome of liver damage in adult and children population.

Running Head: LIVER DAMAGE FROM PLASTIC POLLUTION ON AUSTRALIANS
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT (EHRA) – LIVER DAMAGE
FROM PLASTIC POPULATION AND ITS INCIDENCE ON AUSTRALIAN

LIVER DAMAGE FROM PLASTIC POLLUTION ON AUSTRALIAN
Introduction
It has been seen that each square kilometer of the Australian sea surface water is seen to
be contaminated with 4,000 tiny plastic pieces, as revealed in a study published by a journal
PLOS One (Higginbotham, Freeman, Connor & Albrecht, 2010). Plastics are materials that are
converted from different types of petrochemicals. The years between 1950 and 2011 have
witnessed significant growth in terms of production of plastic worldwide from about 1,700,000
tons to 2,80,000,000 tons. These plastics directly enter the food ecosystem when ingested by
plankton and small fishes. Australians have a tendency to intake large amounts of fishes in
dietary intake as a form of protein. Thus, when the tiny plastic is ingested through the food
ecosystem by humans, it causes tremendous negative impacts on the liver (Pritchard et al, 2010).
The current scope study evaluates the environmental risk assessment from plastic pollution in
water bodies and oceans in Australia, contributing to the health outcome of liver damage in adult
and children population.
Research Question
The current scope of the study will aim to identify the PICO elements through the
research questions.
o P- What segment of the population will be the most affected from plastic in water
bodies and ocean?
o I – What are the prognostic factor exposure in water pollution being considered?
o C – What are the alternatives to compare the above interventions method?
o O – What is the measure which can be improvised through the intervention
mechanism?
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LIVER DAMAGE FROM PLASTIC POLLUTION ON AUSTRALIAN
Background Information
Literatur-e Review
Owing to a higher amount of plastics being disposed of, along with the fact that only a
few amounts of the total used plastics are recycled, have led to the growth of plastic waste
worldwide (Bartram, 2009). In Australia, for example, only 20% out of 1,433,046 tons of used
plastic from 2010 to 2011 has been recycled. Besides, only 37% of the plastic was manufactured
for single-use disposable packaging. The plastics arising from the populated areas reach the sea
via wind, rainwater, sewage disposal, rivers, and flood or due to offshore installations and
vessels such as fishing gear. Then they can either stay afloat on the surface of the sea or ocean or
if they are made of polymer, that is denser than water, they can sink to the bottom of the water
body (McMichael & Lindgren, 2011). The floatable plastics either can be cast ashore by winds
or they can enter into the open area of ocean, where these plastics are likely to get accumulated
in areas formed by the ocean gyres.
The plastics found in various water bodies are further broken into smaller pieces owing to
various biological, photochemical and mechanical processes. Different forms of plastics
manufactured in smaller sizes, i.e. less than 5 mm, also called micro-plastics, including the
synthetic fibers found in clothes and the microbeads from cosmetics may also reach the oceans.
It has been noticed that these smaller particles of plastic, which are less than 5 mm, forms a
significant portion of man-made debris found in the oceans (Schwarzenbach et al, 2010).
However, owing to lack of data regarding the characteristics and occurrence at sea, their
dynamics were poorly evaluated. The only source of information in the published form regarding
micro-plastics is available in the form of a global study that contains a record of their occurrence
in the deposits of Port Douglas in Queensland and Busselton Beach in Western Australia.
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Besides, the current information regarding the pollution caused by plastic is limited to three
sources. The first source is the litter cleanups at beaches that contain the record of the occurrence
of comparatively larger objects (Wooldridge, 2009). The second source is the land-based surveys
regarding the effects of marine debris on the megafauna found in marine areas and the third
source is the reports from Australia, regarding pollution caused by plastic.
Owing to the net stations located within different regions experiencing different
hydrodynamics the course taken by drifters and the result obtained from the use of the model,
showed that there may be a wide range of possible routes through which the plastics, have
traveled. A range of currents can carry the plastics to the sampled sites. Next is South Equatorial
current present in the Pacific Ocean that can bring plastic from other nations to the east coast of
Australia that includes the net stations 16 to 24, 36, 37 and 40 to 45, and areas near New
Caledonia and Fiji that includes net stations 25 to 35. These currents are Antarctic Circumpolar
current that can carry plastics arising from a varied area to various net stations especially the
ones located along the coast of south of Australia, the Tasman Sea and the Tasman coast such as
the net stations - 1 to 15, 38 and 39 (Wright, Wright, Graham & Burgin, 2011). East Australian is
another current that can carry plastic from regions that are highly populated by residential
property such as Brisbane and Sydney, to the net stations situated along the Tasmania coast such
as net stations 5, 15, 38 and 39, Tasman sea that includes net stations 1 to 4 and the east coast of
Australia that includes net stations 16 to 24, 36 and 37 (Lavers, Bond & Hutton, 2014). Then
there are Holloway, Leeuwin, South Australian and Zeehan coastal current systems that can
carry plastic from areas connected from the Indonesian Throughflow and Indian Gyre into the
net stations of the North West Shelf, that is the net stations 48 to 57, Perth that is, the net station
14 and south coast of Australia, Bass Strait, Tasman Sea and Tasmania coast that covers net
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stations 1 to 13, 15 to 17, 37 to 39 (King, Smith & Gracey, 2009). Lastly, the West Australian
current that carries plastic deposited in the Indian Gyre to net stations in the North West Shelf
which is net station 48 to 57 and off Perth, which is net station 14.
Justification for the environmental pollutant–health outcome relationship
Since the 1980s, the effects of plastics on various form of marine animals such as birds,
turtles, mammals were acknowledged. However, only recently rising concern has been noticed
regarding the effects of smaller plastics on the marine ecosystems (Berry, Bowen & Kjellstrom,
2010). About half of the plastics produced recently contain at least one dangerous component
and when they reach the water bodies, they become more toxic by absorbing various form of
organic pollutants present on their surface. Marine animals when consuming these plastics or due
to endocytosis, the toxins in concentrated form reach their food webs. Such occurrence is only
possible when the organism at the lower level of food web consumed smaller plastics (Hawe &
Potvin, 2009). For example, it has been observed that smaller plastic particles that originates in
the stomach of Southern Bluefin tuna that were captured near Tasmania originated from the guts
of their food - myctophid fish. In this situation, the plastic particles will be transferred to the
affected organisms and through the biomagnifications process; it will reach the higher levels of
the food web. If this process continues, human, who lies at the top level of the food web as an
apex predator, will also be affected by the same (Vörösmarty et al, 2010).
Australia acknowledges the threat caused by plastics to marine ecosystems, however, this
acknowledgment is limited to the effects caused to the marine megafauna owing to large debris
such as plastic bags and abandoned fishing nets (Hunter, MacDonald & Carter, 2010). In order to
have a clear understanding of the effects of hazards caused by plastics to the organisms and the
environment of Australia, it is important to assess the occurrence and characteristics of plastic
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LIVER DAMAGE FROM PLASTIC POLLUTION ON AUSTRALIAN
debris found at sea. Till date, with the help of surface net tows, the plastics found at waters
around Australia have been characterized on the basis of size, color, type, and polymer content,
and estimation was made regarding their concentration (García-Niño & Pedraza-Chaverri, 2014).
Besides, with the use of drifting buoys tracked by satellite and on based on the results of a
dispersal model, the possible route taken by the collected plastics were observed.
The studies above depict increased incidence of plastic pollution entering into marine,
animal and human life through various pathways. Increased intake of plastic polluting hazards
enters into ecological communities through species more than it is officially recognized. The
effects of plastic into the food web has gained focus attention in the last decade as the majority of
plastic objects contains a minimum of one ingredient classified as a hazardous substance. Plastic
in the ocean has become more toxic due to its absorption of oil pollutants on their surfaces. Once
these plastics gets ingested, the toxins directly get transferred into animals and humans through
the food chain. These toxins ingested directly has an impact on the liver, making it more
susceptible to hepatitis and cancers.
Methods
Problem identification
Increased plastic concentration at various places along Australian water bodies and
oceans is mainly from major Australian cities and industrial centers. Direct and untreated
discharge of plastic into the ocean and their fragmentation into tiny pieces by heat, wind and
weather conditions, often gets ingested by planktons and small fishes, even sometimes by whales
(Frazzoli, Orisakwe, Dragone & Mantovani, 2010). Plastics contain substances that are regarded
to be hazardous in nature. These tiny plastic pieces often absorb oil floating on the ocean,
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making them more toxic in nature. These fishes when enters the food ecosystem directly enters
animal and human bodies. The hazardous substances in plastic and toxins from oils directly
impact the functioning of the liver within the human and animal body (Lorenzini et al, 2010).
The impact of these water pollutants on beings has gained considerable importance and needs to
be investigated in-depth.
Hazard Identification:
Plastic is made from hazardous substances, moreover, the oil it absorbs makes it more
toxic. The hazardous substance along with toxic elements when enters the being bloodstream can
prove to be harmful to the liver.
Dose-response:
Prolonged exposure to ingesting plastic over a period of a year or more can cause serious
health complications. In case of prolonged exposure, it can cause serious health complications,
such as liver cirrhosis and cancer of the liver, even of the bloodstream.
Exposure assessment:
In order to estimate or measure the magnitude of plastic pollutant entering into the bloodstream
through the food ecosystem, time duration and intake of fish will be measured. The frequency of
fish ingested in a year and the frequency of such intake will directly transform into the health
outcome.
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Risk Communication Strategy
An effective, integrated and coordinate form of the strategic framework used in risk
communication can help in communicating the goals in a better way. The main idea behind this
type of framework is to create a better and healthier future for native people (North & Halden,
2013). The main goal of the strategic framework involved in risk communication is to provide
the main audiences with information, and guidance that would further help in protecting the
health of individuals, families, communities and thereby the whole nation.
The audiences involved in communication are important decision makers. The important
representatives involve in the health-related decision-making process are the healthcare service
providers, various individuals, communities, different policymakers, and various nationalized
organization (Halden, 2010). The strategy involved in risk communication mainly addresses the
important decision-makers involved in the betterment of the health, so that they can create a
difference in the overall health-related results.
The strategy of effective risk communication is based on important principles that include
action, reliability, accessibility, comprehensibility, applicability, and timeliness (Free et al,
2014).
The strategy for effective risk communication also involves mapping different forms of
communication channels to make certain that the message involving the health result can spread
throughout multiple channels. This will further ensure that important audiences receive the
correct information and guidance from various sources. Different communication channels can
be categorized into three groups - organization and community, mass media and various
interpersonal communication processes. Updates involving information related to health risk
along with various ways in terms of protecting health will be available online (Wilcox, Van
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Sebille & Hardesty, 2015). The information is required to be available and understandable in
such a way, that even people with disabilities can get access to the required information. The
health results are required to spread throughout multiple communication channels so that they
can reach a wide range of audiences. If appropriate messages reach their target audience owing
to the various regional and national office channels, it would improve the effectiveness of the
message transferred. Messages spread through various news media - regional as well as national,
along with various forms of social media that include followers from both local and regional
level, and community networks as well as developing partnership with different channels can
help in coordinate the message.
Communications based on questions in terms of environmental risks will help in
developing actionable plans. This will further lead to the spreading of awareness and help in
developing solutions to overcome different obstacles.
In developing a strategy for risk communication, it is important to design a behavioral change
campaign that will involve different partners and make certain that the community resources are
available for sending or transmitting the message.
These above-mentioned strategies will help in meeting the target audience and carrying
out the risk communication. The strategic plan will result in various advantages, and the most
essential of all is developing the capability of attending the health risk by effective personnel.
Conclusion
To conclude, it is important to remember that the backward running of models or using
drifter trajectories can provide an estimation regarding the possible course taken by the plastics
collected. Owing to the fact that the quantities of plastic and their source being unknown, it is
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difficult to make a precise estimation. Besides, no method can help in estimating the drifting
time of a plastic particle, as, for example, plastics that drifted for years can match the long track
of drifters. Another limitation of using drifters is that the estimated course formed by tracking
drifters is based not only on the ocean current but also on the areas where they are released from.
For example, due to lack of drifters in the shallow waters of the archipelago, only a few drifters
arrived at the possible site of the North West Shelf. Therefore, releasing shallow water drifter in
this area can help in understanding the possible course and source of marine plastics. The health
outcome from the ingested plastic can depict the impact that it can have on human, animal and
marine life. Appropriate intervention methods can enable overcoming the relevant issues.
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