Low Impact Manufacturing of Electric Motorcycles

Low impact manufacturing of electric motorcycles
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Subject:

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Executive summary
This report concerns with the circular economy and lowering the impact of the manufactured
products by depending on recycling, reuse and remanufacturing. The main focus of this report is
to discuss the recycling of electric motorcycles in the context of the circular economy. It
analyses the required changes, its future and the future steps, policies and standards for each type
of electric motorcycles component.

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Table of contents
Introduction..............................................................................................................................3
First: Description of parts and application of circular economy concepts.........................3
Second: Description of the future industrial system and life cycle stages by using recycled
components...............................................................................................................................6
Third: Descriptions of short & long term steps, and policies and standards for each of the
types of electric motorcycles component................................................................................9
Conclusions.............................................................................................................................11
References...............................................................................................................................13

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Introduction
The concept of circular economy (CE) is promoted by many countries, like the UK, Japan, China
and France in addition to many business organizations. CE represents a good chance for national
economies to generate profits and create a source of national income. China is the leading
country in CE law adoption, it represents an approach to economic growth and sustainable
development. CE helps in reducing the negative environmental impact and offers new business
opportunities. CE involves material and components reuse, repair, remanufacturing, utilization of
waste derived energy across the product value chain (Korhonen, et al., 2018).
Organizations involved in the CE should understand the environmental impact of transformation
on the environment. There are different processes to the circular economy that occur in a
fragmented manner across various disciplines. Also, different aspects take place according to the
adopted CE approach. The CE refers to the physical and material economic aspects that focus on
recycling and reusing materials in the economy in order to reduce the consumption of the
primary resources. CE facilitates new types of economic activities, generates new employment
opportunities and enhance competitiveness. Also, it uses various sources of clean energy and
limits the use of harmful chemicals (Rizos, et al., 2017).
According to Wautelet (2018), the circular flow speed differs according to the nature of the
recycled materials. There is a negative relationship between the efficiency of stocks management
and the flow speed (Lahti, et al., 2018; London Waste and Recycling Board, 2015).
The following section discusses the recycling of electric motorcycles in the context of the
circular economy. It discusses the recycling of electric motorcycles in the context of the circular
economy. Also, it investigates the required changes, its future and the future steps, policies and
standards for each type of electric motorcycles component.
First: Description of parts and application of circular economy concepts
1.1 Defining circular business models and the circular economy
The business model describes the way in which organizations create and capture value. The
feature of the business model identifies the market value of the company, how it organizes its
business and its stakeholders to generate value. Therefore, the business model is a system of
interrelated activities that expands the organization boundaries. Accordingly, the circular

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business model should be based on value creation and capture in line with resource usage. It
shifts the business activities from profit making to product sales for profit making, which leads
organizations to capture value through alternative value proposition (Geissdoerfer, et al., 2017).
1.2 Assessment of waste type environmental impact of electric motorcycle
Before analyzing the impact of the recycling of electric motorcycle components, it is important
to provide an assessment of the impact of waste type environmental. The materials and
components of the electric motorcycles could have a market value, might need pretreatment to
ensure its suitability to the environment. They are discussed according to Chiarini (2014), as
follows.
 Defects: They refer to raw materials that are used in manufacturing defective products. The
defective materials are recyclable and they need space for heating cooling and lightening.
 Waiting: The probable spoilage of materials or damage components cause waste. The
wasted energy could stem from cooling, heating and lightning during the manufacturing
process.
 Overproduction: Refers to the materials used in producing unneeded products. The
overproduction could be used in the form of components to be incorporated in the production
of other products.
 Movement and transportation: Transportation of recycled products use more energy and
results in more emissions during the movement process. Additional space is required for
work-in-process (WIP), more light is needed, heating and cooling consumption.
 Inventory: Extra package to store WIP is needed and more materials are required to store the
WIP, accompanied with more cool, heat and energy to keep the inventory safe.
 Complexity and over processing: The over processing requires more materials and
components to be used for every unit of production. The unnecessary processing is not cost-
effective, because it leads to more waste, emissions and energy consumption.
 Unused creativity: Fewer ideas minimizes the opportunity of waste usage.
1.3 The major types of electric motorcycles component
 Structural parts (chassis, wheels, suspension, seat assembly, etc.)
The company is required to consider the end-of-life (ELV) concept that focuses on product
design. The electric motorcycles design stage consider environmental issues by avoiding the
usage of hazardous substances. Accordingly, the design facilitates recycling by making it safer

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more efficient. In most of the cases, the electric motorcycle has more than several thousand
components. It is considered a complex product that requires efforts in design and production.
Components are sourced from different suppliers, the matter that makes recycling a complex
process that should be environmental friendly (Kuo, et al., 2012).
Electric motorcycles component are treated in a way similar to other solid waste treatment. The
treatment process requires several related industries to be involved in recycling the structural
parts. The scrap of iron, copper and aluminum are recycled parts with market value when sold in
the informal sector. The motorcycles weight is light and the amount of materials from them is
small (Lin, et al., 2018).
For the company to be ready to store material parts of electric motorcycles, it has to manage and
prepare a location for E-waste storage, it should also be clean and dry. The designed area should
be closed by a fence, secured by robes and other means to prevent material collapse (United
States Environmental Protection Agency, 2012).
The materials and chemicals used in manufacturing that are classified to be hazardous should be
separated out. Also, they should be treated according to the law of hazardous waste collection
and storage facilities (Li, et al., 2014).
 Electrical parts (motors, switches, wires, circuit boards, batteries)
The lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are considered the most valuable electric part in electric
motorcycles. They combine the high energy and power density that enable them to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions (Nitta, et al., 2015). Statistics indicate that the average life of the LIBs
is 3 to 5 years in power vehicles. Therefore, LIBs are a new type of reused materials that differ
from other solid waste types. Recycling of the electrical parts in general aims for reducing or
eliminating the potential impact on the environment. According to Zheng, et al. (2018), the
technology and process to be applied on LIBs is still under tests in the laboratory due to their
complex structure. The generally applied method for recycling the used LIBs is
pyrometallurgical processes. They depend on separating the metals; nickel, cobalt, and copper in
one side and the lithium and aluminum are treated in the form of slag. Also, they do not require
pretreatment of spent LIBs, but their high energy usage, large equipment investment and
environmental pollution represent a high cost of hydrometallurgical processes application.
Therefore, these processes were developed by companies, like Retriev Technologies Inc. The
newly developed recycling process involve pretreatment, leaching, solvent extraction and

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precipitation. This process is advantaged for its low energy consumption, and disadvantaged for
its long route (Zheng, et al., 2018; The Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries Association,
2018).
The recycling operation of other electric parts is profitable and offers a new business
opportunity. The recycled items are selected to be of high quality. They should be manually or
mechanically separated and prepared for metal recovery (Gaines, 2014).
 Miscellaneous parts (tyres, transmission, bodywork, upholstery, etc.)
The processes of remanufacturing and reproduction require materials to be processed in a usable
manner to do the same function or different functions. The miscellaneous parts of the electric
motorcycles require to be used in producing new products as new resources (European
Environment Agency, 2018). This process includes:
 Tyres: They should be reused in the production of new tyres.
 Non-hazardous materials: They include ferrous and non-ferrous materials, like steel,
aluminum, copper, wires and cables and other metals; brass, bronze, metal fines, plastics,
wood and glass. These materials should be sent to the smelters to be reused in the production
of raw materials.
 Mercury-containing lamps: There should be a automated separation of lamps to separate
glass, metal and phosphor powder that could be further used for producing new mercury.
 Transmission, bodywork and upholstery: They could be repaired and used in the
production of new motorcycles.
Second: Description of the future industrial system and life cycle stages by using recycled
components
2.1 Life cycle assessment
Life cycle assessment (LCA) refers to a way of comparing different products according to their
environmental impact. LCA involves all of the environmentally relevant activities associated
with products and services starting from resources extraction till the product end life by
collecting the life cycle inventory (LCI). Accordingly, the product or service life cycle impact
assessment (LCIA) is calculated from these flows. LCA could be used by the company to
compare the driving experiences of different types of electric motorcycles for one kilometer in
average over the vehicle whole lifetime (Hawkins, et al., 2013).

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2.1.1 Life cycle costing
The life cycle costs of an electric motorcycle could be estimated at a 5% discount rate from the
user perspective. Cost data is derived from current market prices. Manufacturing costs could be
estimated to be double of the manufacturing cost. Lithium-ion batteries manufacturing costs are
estimated to be 300–400 $/kW h in 2015. Here, we should consider that the consumer can buy in
the form of an upgrade package from motorcycle producers with a doubled price (Earles &
Halog, 2011).
2.1.2 Modelling approach
All of the types of motorcycles should be modeled by adopting the same framework to ensure a
fair comparison between them. Also, the differences between different powertrains, like lifetime,
power and driving characteristics would be held constant. Then the size and costs of the
materials, components and motorcycle energy consumption should be calculated. The results of
the calculations should be linked with economic environmental data to calculate the results of the
LCI assessment (Earles & Halog, 2011).
2.1.3 Motorcycle used parameters
The motorcycle lifetime distance kilometer represents a very important parameter in calculating
the life cycle impact and making cost estimation. The electric motorcycles operating lifetime is
25 years on average according to TREMOVE that represents the European Commission policy
assessment model. While the Swiss motorcycle stock statistics reveals that smaller motorcycles
average lifetime is 10–12 years. The annual average according to the European system is
calculated according to the annual distance traveled that represents 2000 to 5000 km/year for
small motorcycles and 4000–6000 km/year for large motorcycles. These estimations contradict
with the Swiss mobility census data for 2009 that indicated the annual distance traveled to be
10,000–20,000 km/year. The company should consider these statistics and implement a
sensitivity analysis. The 25 years average lifetime of an electric motorcycle is large for the
lithium battery, which means that the distance traveled of an electric motorcycle is lower than
150,000 km for the large type. It is important to consider that the battery end life does not match
the end of the electric motorcycle’s lifetime (European Commission, 2014; Cox & Mutel, 2018).
2.1.4 Motorcycle characterization considering the recycled parts
Motorcycles are considered to be composed of structural, electrical and miscellaneous parts. It is
assumed that all of these parts will be recycled, even the metal components will be recycled by

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the parts suppliers to be reused in producing new motorcycles. Then, calculations of the impact
and cost of electric motorcycles that involves cycled components should be implemented and
judgments should be incorporated in case the detailed data is missing. Also, it is important to
consider that the performance of many components will improve by the time. The company
could consider the year 2019 to be the base year of starting the implementation of
remanufacturing recycled parts. Then annual improvements will be considered based on
manufacturing information, available literature, historical data, expert judgement and industry
related data. Data validation will be confirmed by comparing the used input data of motorcycles
energy consumption with the commercially available data of motorcycles energy consumption
(Azmi, et al., 2013; Cox & Mutel, 2018).
2.2 Structural parts
The mass of the structural parts could be estimated by conducting an analysis of the weight and
power of the remanufactured motorcycles and deducting the calculated electrical and
miscellaneous parts. The mass of the structural parts is assumed to remain constant in the future
and the material composition will not witness any changes, but the weight of the high-
performance motorcycles is expected to decrease because of changes in design and using
advanced materials like the carbon fiber. Despite this, it is much better to concentrate on the
average products that will not change over time (Cox & Mutel, 2018).
2.3 Electrical parts
Electric powertrain consists of an electric motor and controller. The materials used in electric
powertrains are expected to remain the same in the future. The lithium-ion batteries control the
energy consumption level and storage. Converting the energy power to value provides a good
estimation of the remanufacturing costs and energy consumption. The energy consumption level
is the critical element in determining the environmental impact of LIBs. The battery reproduction
is controlled by climate control in a clean room used for cell production. Therefore, it should be
assumed that the batteries environmental impact is related to the mass of the battery rather than
the storage capacity of energy. Also, it is assumed that the production processes for future
batteries will remain constant (Cox & Mutel, 2018).
2.4 Miscellaneous parts

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Motorcycles are modeled to be hybrids that depend on generating 50% of energy from lithium-
ion power batteries and 50% from Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The future
performance of a PEM fuel cell is projected to be modified in terms of efficiency and density
parameters. In 2030, the cells power efficiency is assumed to increase to 54%. The cost of fuel
cell balance of plant LCI (BoP) is expected to decrease due to technology improvement within
the circular economy as a whole and the economies of scale for the company that is expected to
occur by sustaining the remanufacturing processes (Cox & Mutel, 2018).
2.5 Evaluation of LCA
LCA will be evaluated in terms of its advantages and disadvantages according to Patterson
(2018) and Hellweg & Canals (2014), as follows:
2.5.1 Benefits of LCA
It is advantaged for its accurate results in analyzing a large volume of data sets that include life
cycle inventory, bill of materials and components, energy consumption levels and environmental
impacts. It facilitates the comparison process between different products, the matter that enables
the company to make the right decision with low impact in the design, use of disposal and
remanufacturing. Also, it highlights the environmental impact across the life cycle chain.
Therefore, it prohibits the problem extension from a stage within the life cycle to another or from
a component environmental impact to another. In addition, it is useful for communicating the
remanufacturing of electric motorcycles impact with the stakeholders.
2.5.2 Limitations of LCA
LCA could be costly in terms of resource and time. The accuracy of used data and accessibility
represent a critical factor in the success of the LCA estimation of the product impact. The lack of
data should be offset by making assumptions that could be subjective.
Third: Descriptions of short and long term steps, policies and standards for each of the
types of electric motorcycles component
Planning for reuse and recycling of electric motorcycles components need to be designed from
the beginning. In the short term, the recycling processes should be carefully monitored and any
problems related to their environmental impact and opportunities for decreasing the impact and
profit generation should be addressed. In the long run, the recycling processes should be well
planned to consider the second-use applications and remanufacturing of components. The role
that the low-carbon electricity sources play is important to be considered across the product life

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cycle to enable the company to achieve the full potential of low carbon emissions. This is also
related to the raw material extraction and reproduction phases that involve energy-intensive
processes (European Environment Agency, 2018).
The long run should witness changes in the design of the electric motorcycle according to Kuo,
et al. (2012), as follows:
 Changes in the product design: Changes should be extended to include the choice of
materials to be used in developing new motorcycles. To increase the focus on the reuse,
disassembly and remanufacture. Also to eliminate any harmful components or chemicals.
 Changes in the extent of electric motorcycles recovery: This could be done by increasing
the level of reuse and increasing the recycling rate of materials.
 Enhance the process of information sharing: This could be facilitated by following the
coding standards and sharing information about disassembly processes and disposal. In order
to successfully implement these changes, the company should adopt eco-friendly solutions
through environmental management that benefits the business, customer and suppliers.
Collaboration with the stakeholders is likely to decrease the negative impact of the
production process on the environment. For example, Taiwan companies adopt the extended
producer responsibility (EPR) concept, which implies the polluter pay principle (PPP). The
manufacturers with environmental impact are required to pay fees for the recycling processes
to the authority, which is responsible for the recycling system. Despite this, the PPP is not
beneficial in the rural areas, for example, the islands. Therefore, switching from PPP to
enable the manufacturer to take the responsibility to recycle the electric motorcycles across
different areas is more beneficial.
3.1 Steps, and policies and standards of the structural parts
These processes will be discussed according to Li, et al. (2014), as follows:
 Steps:
1. The company should follow the rules of eco-design for easier recycling.
2. Information about the whole recycling process should be collected and stored by the
company to be able to compile the life management history of electric motorcycles.
 Policies: Use of less hazardous substances and make the design disassemble and disposal.
 Standards: avoid prohibited toxic substances, like lead, cadmium, mercury and
polybrominated biphenyls

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3.2 Steps, and policies and standards of electrical parts
These processes will be discussed according to Beijing Capital Energy Technology Co. Ltd
(2017) and Sonoc, et al. (2015), as follows:
 Steps:
1. Considering the problem of scarcity of lithium – the main component of the LIBs – by
2020, the LIBs must be recycled to enable the company to fulfill the increasing demand
for clean energy.
2. Incorporate the technology advances in the PEM fuel cell, which is projected to be
modified in terms of efficiency and density parameters to offset any shortage in the LIBs.
 Policies: To continue depending on the Li-ion batteries in the future for its advantages and
likelihood to continue to dominate portable electrochemical energy storage for many coming
years.
 Standards: To depend on the Li that does not represent a major factor of the Li-ion batteries
overall cost at the current time.
3.3 Steps, and policies and standards of miscellaneous parts
These processes will be discussed according to Stahel (2016), as follows:
 Steps:
1. Rubber from tires, lead-acid battery, coolants, and engine oil components should be
environmentally pretreated.
2. Implement the closed-loop recycling by reusing the secondary material and pretreated
components in the earlier process to replaces the primary input.
 Policies: To adapt to the new developments in miscellaneous parts. For example, there is a
promising future for the airless tyres for electric motorcycles.
 Standards: Reduce the costs of collecting components and scrap and create value added at
every stage across the product’s life cycle.
Conclusions
The circular business model should be developed on the basis of value creation and capture in
line with resource usage. It shifts the business activities from profit making to product sales for
profit making.

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The electric motorcycles design stage consider environmental issues by avoiding the usage of
hazardous substances. It has more than several thousand components. It is considered a complex
product that requires efforts in design and production. The motorcycles weight is light and the
amount of materials from them is small.
LIBs are considered the most valuable electric part in electric motorcycles. They combine the
high energy and power density that enable them to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling of
the electrical parts in general aims for reducing or eliminating the potential impact on the
environment. The miscellaneous parts of the electric motorcycles require to be used in producing
new products as new resources.
LCA refers to a method of comparing different products in terms of their environmental impact.
LCA could be used by the company to compare between the experiences of different
motorcycles for one kilometer with an average over the vehicle lifetime.
All of the types of motorcycles should be modeled by adopting the same framework to ensure a
fair comparison between them. The results LCA calculations should be linked with economic
environmental data to calculate the results of the LCI assessment. It is important to consider that
the performance of many components will improve by the time. The company could consider the
year 2019 to be the base year of starting the implementation of remanufacturing recycled parts.
Data validation will be confirmed by comparing the used input data of motorcycles energy
consumption with the commercially available data of motorcycles energy consumption.

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