Teaching Programming to Secondary and High School Students

This paper explores the benefits of teaching programming to secondary and high school students and importantly, how best to teach it, taking into account the principles of pedagogy as the basis for the teaching.

MEGA 65 RETRO FOR COMPUTING

Section 1
Introduction
Among the enduring characteristics of the 21st Century is the ubiquity of technology in nearly all
spheres of life. Present day students live their lives with technology; it surrounds them, they use it,
becoming an integral part of their lives, from smart phones to laptops and wearables. Computers
and related technologies are slowly taking over human jobs and will likely pervade all aspects of
life and society in general and to remain relevant and fit in, people must be adaptable and versatile
enough. The emerging scenario creates a compelling case to provide students with the right
education that will make them harness and leverage the ubiquity of technology, rather than be
threatened by it. Educating today’s youth in computers is to not only make them able to understand
and work with computers and computer systems, but to be able to enhance existing solutions and
systems. Present efforts in computer and technology education should be broadened and enhanced
so there is greater understanding why the teaching of informatics should be done, how it should be
taught, the informatics topics where teaching should be concentrated, and the target of the
informatics education and training (García-Peñalvo and Cruz-Benito, 2016). This paper is
specifically interested in a specific filed of informatics education and training: programming. This
dissertation uses the term informatics to refer to education in computer science delivered
specifically to persons in upper secondary education level; this population is aged generally
between 14 and 18 years. The dissertation also focuses on both the content knowledge, in this case
informatics, as well as the teaching methods and approaches implying a focus on epistemology and
pedagogy. This approach to education and training gives useful insights to matters education,
relative to the teaching and learning of topics. The computers of the future will not just be computer
devices such as laptops; instead, they will be systems made of smart devices, servers, cloud
systems, robots, and artificial intelligence systems with advanced machine learning abilities. The
emphasis of pedagogy is of tangible interactive objects and physical representations that benefit
learning especially among younger persons. This paper explores the benefits of teaching
programming to secondary and high school students and importantly, how best to teach it, taking
into account the principles of pedagogy as the basis for the teaching.
Project Question and Motivation
Educational psychology research suggests that teaching and learning are activities that are subject
specific- teaching and learning programming comes with is own specific set of issues and
challenges. Several tangible hardware systems with platforms that can be used to introduce children
to computer programming, however there is limited comparative analysis of these systems in the
context of teaching programming in a formal classroom. The guiding questions for this dissertation
therefore is;

Can programming be effectively aught to students in secondary and higher education levels using
various hardware and software systems in a class setting where the principles of pedagogy and
epistemology are incorporated?
What are the benefits of teaching students programming at an early age using tangible computers?
The motivation for this dissertation is because learning programming comes with different
challenges than say learning how to read or write, or learning physics (García-Peñalvo and Cruz-
Benito, 2016). Computing is comparatively younger discipline and filed compared to say physics,
chemistry, or biology, and is a very practical and exact filed; you either know how to make the right
notations using programming languages or not, there is no trial and error or researching. Further,
there are few studies focused on how best programming can be taught in schools; despite this,, there
is a growing body of evidence that show what does and what does not work.
Background and Related Work
Present generation of students and society in general are surrounded, even swamped by computers
and computer systems and this trend will continue even into the future (Chatfield, 2013). As such,
students should learn computers and computer systems because even if their major interests are in
other filed and disciplines such as arts or economics, they will most probably encounter
increasingly advanced computers such as the Quantum computer and computer systems as well as
computer programs, and the latest development of applications that run on mobile devices as well as
on computers. Computer science and informatics is still a very new and young discipline whose
very definition is still considered to be under development (Rainie and Anderson, 2017). The
greatest challenge of computers and informatics is a conceptual one; it is a an integrated study field
that has foundations in science, mathematics, and engineering. But in a strict sense, learning and
teaching programming is nowhere near or similar to learning and teaching a subject like physics
(Acharya and Panth, 2015). Previously, computer programming was viewed as a skill better suited
to computer nerds and geeks (Reagle, 2017); however, developments in computing and computer
systems have elevated programming into the mainstream and it is now a major components of
several curricula, including in primary schools (Vágó, 2017).
The history of the existence of the computer is long; presently, the computer has undergone several
transformations, from the massive mainframe computers of the 1960s to the present micro
computers such as Arduino (Krumm Ed., 2018). The computer is a device that can receive
instructions and execute an arbitrary set of logical or arithmetic operations and this is possible
because computers can follow general operational sequences (the programs), enabling them perform
various tasks fast and reliably. The computer has memory and a microprocessors that acts as its
brain, to perform a myriad of cations. In the modern world, the role of a computer in learning and
teaching has become a central issue in the context of present and future technological advances,

given that the goals of education is to equip learners with skills for the present and the future, and
also up-skill them on future skill-trends. As such, its (the computers) role in learning and teaching
has been discussed extensively in contemporary educational policy literature (Reagle, 2017).
Experts in the education sector agree that well used, the computer holds a special place in
enhancing learning and teaching, as well as preparing youths fr the workforce of the future (Herold,
2016).
Teaching youths and young people programming skills in schools will be beneficial not only to the
students, but the entire industry and society as a whole. The students will be able to develop their
own applications, games, and web sites as well as computer software (Lye and Koh, 2014).
Programming skills related to mobile application design and development will be in great demand,
as will programming skills to develop systems such as artificial intelligence systems to solve
societies problems like traffic jams. Many learning institutions are offering programming and
coding lessons in school (Kafai and Burke, 2013; Tran, 2018); in the USA it is 40% of all schools
and this is a significant increase from just five years back when just 25% of American schools
offered programming lessons. In many developed nations like Australia, programming teaching and
learning in schools has become an educational priority. But learning programming is unlike learning
other subjects; at its most elemental level, it is learning how to give computers instructions on what
to do and this needs mastering problem solving skills termed ‘computational thinking’ (Stengder,
2017). Because of the nascent nature of informatics and programming in the present world though,
there are still challenges and no known method of how best it should be taught and learned to have
a lasting impact and prepare the young people for ubiquitous information and computers systems
age (Tedre and Denning, 2016).
In this digital age, digital skills and competencies are one of the main conditions and requirements
for economic and social transformation (Hoskins and Crick, 2010). The present challenges in
education is up-skilling the workforce of the future, that will not only be working with computers,
but working ‘alongside’ them as well, what with the promise of advanced artificial intelligence (AI),
machine learning, and the ‘thinking’ computer. As such, young people must be empowered with the
right competencies and skills to master and develop their own digital technologies while also
thriving in the modern and future society (Vallor, 2014). Teaching the young people coding and
how to write and use code, in both non-formal and formal education settings, is significant in
achieving the objective of the well equipped member of society and the future worker. Parents,
educators, and policy makers have always flirted with the idea of teaching coding in schools; this
idea has gained greater importance in recent times on a global scale (Brynjolfsson and McAfee,
2012). The rationale behind this thinking is that there is a skills shortage in the ICT sector with the
skills required in the modern market place. Europe, for instance, will have a shortage in the right

ICT skills of 900,000 professionals by the year 2020 (Ansip, 2015). Another motivation for the
need for learning coding in schools is the need to provide learners with the critical and logical
thinking, creativity and problem solving skills central to the 21st economy (Kivunja, 2014).
Coding in schools continues to be a global trend with countries such as France and Spain
introducing it recently in their wider curricula (Grover, 2018). Survey data in Europe involving
education ministers in 20 European countries as well as Israel show that digital competencies
remains a key priority. In the survey, the surveyors sought to gain insights on the relative
importance of coding in relation to other computing skills. The results how most countries have put
in place priorities to develop ICT competencies with the development of students’ digital
competencies being given high priority by most European countries taking part in the survey (19 of
21 countries). In the survey, the use of ICT as a learning tool was also given priority by most
countries (16 of 21) participating in the survey (Balanskat and Engelhardt, 2015). Of the
participating counties, coding was mentioned as a competency priority by ten countries; although
just less than half of the participating countries, the integration of coding in education is given high
priority among other ICT competency skills. However, it is not a separate and single focus of
curriculum development in most of the countries. Other countries (the Czech Republic, Belgium
Flanders, Malta, Ireland, and Poland), state that computational thinking is a major competence skill
that will be acquired upon integrating coding into education, in addition to the other ICT
competency skills (Balanskat and Engelhardt, 2015).
16 of the participating countries have integrated coding into their educational curriculum at the local
or regional level at least and the reasons given for integrating coding in education curricula include
aiming to enhance skills suitable for the 21st Century. For a majority of the participating countries,
the aim is to develop the logical skills of the students (15 countries) and skills in problem solving
(14 countries) as a way of addressing 21st century skills gaps and challenges (Balanskat and
Engelhardt, 2015). 11 of the countries reported their focus being to develop key ICT competencies
and/ or skills in coding and these countries also have priorities to attract more students into the
coding skills classes with the aim of fostering employability skills in them. Most of the participating
countries (13) plan to integrate coding lessons into at upper secondary school level while eight
countries intend, or have, introduced coding into upper secondary vocational education level. Over
ten of the countries have already integrated, or will integrate coding at all schooling levels while
countries like Poland adopted a new informatics curriculum into their education system to replace
the existing computer training and activities with vigorous learning in computer science and
programming at all K-12 levels to being implemented (Balanskat and Engelhardt, 2015).
A third of European countries already have coding classes as being compulsory at specific
education levels and integrated mainly as a component of computer courses. In countries such as

Denmark, knowing coding is now part of traditional subjects such as math, chemistry, and physics
while in Slovakia and England, coding is a compulsory subject in elementary (primacy) education.
12 of the countries that took part in the survey have already introduced coding as a separate
standalone course in their curricula, at regional or the school level only, and not at a nation wide
level (Balanskat and Engelhardt, 2015). In most of the countries where coding is already part of the
curriculum, assessments are done as part of general student assessment including project work of
ICT examinations. In the countries where coding is already integrated into the curriculum, Pre-
service or in- service training is already being provided to teachers to enable them teach coding
effectively; the universities offer most of this training as well as not for profit organizations and
companies (Westbrook et al., 2013). There is also increased collaboration with several stakeholders.
However, a method for evaluating coding initiatives in the countries implementing it is still poor.
Overall, more countries are pioneering the introduction of coding into their curricula (Major,
Kyriacou and Brereton, 2012). The study shows a general trend of increased interest and priority of
introducing coding among younger learners in most developed countries of Europe. In japan, a new
informatics curriculum will be introduced at the elementary level in 2020 and will include
compulsory coding classes where students will learn logical thinking from the coding lessons
(Vlatko, 2015).
Programming in Education
Programming is just one among several informatics teaching topics that have gained popularity and
priority in recent times (Caspersen et al., 2019); in the Netherlands, informatics has become a new
generation discipline since it is linked strongly to Physics, mathematics, engineering, psychology,
business, philosophy, economy, and social sciences. This makes it a critical subject because of the
complexity of the subjects it is linked with (Zhang et al., 2010).
Challenges in teaching and learning programming in schools at secondary and tertiary levels
Many countries are introducing computing into their curriculum; Sentance and Csizmadia (2016)
undertook a study involving 300 teachers teaching computing at that time in the UK and who were
preparing for the mandatory computing inclusion into the education curriculum. The survey sought
to establish any difficulties and challenges they faced in teaching youngsters computing, as well as
to get insights into their perspectives and strategies. The survey identified both extrinsic and
intrinsic challenges faced by the teachers as well as students. The teachers also recommended a
number of pedagogical approaches based on their practice. Categorizing these approaches used to
support teaching computing effectively to the students, five main themes were identified: task
contextualization, unplugged activity types, scaffolding of programming tasks, developing
computational thinking, and collaborative learning. However, the strategies were not tested and the
research recommended their practical testing to determine if they can alleviate challenges associated

with learning and teaching informatics, particularly programming. The research also found that
another strategy to improve outcomes is developing the resilience of students in computing. Tillman
et al (2012) alludes that there has been a constant evolution on how thoughts on how to perform
symbolic computations have been evolving consonantly, from paper illustrations to using
computers.
The methods of teaching have followed the same trend closely with existing technology being
leveraged to ensure more effective teaching and prepare students for future careers with existing
technology. From the 2010s’ the authors state, the world has been in a state of another technological
evolution and shift; rather than using laptops and personal computers, there is increased use of
mobile devices which have over the years become ubiquitous in performing several computing
tasks. This is the first time in the history of human that such portable devices with high processing
power as smart phones have been available to people in large scale. As such, the authors propose
the use of mobile devices for teaching coding and programming as the target group (youngsters) are
adept at using these mobile devices and use them on a daily basis for a range of functions including
communication and entertainment. The mobile devices are carried around all the time to any
destination to provide critical services as well as instant gratification for the students as they can
share and show their applications and games to friends (Ertmer et al., 2012). Using the mobile
devices, the students can engage in their lifestyles while also doing some coding practice and doing
their homework.
The authors then propose TouchDevelop, a novel mobile coding environment that can be used to
make coding more interesting and [at of the students daily repertoire that includes personal
entertainment and communicating using their mobile devices. Duncan and Bell (2015) propose a
novel approach to teach programming to primary school, learners. They acknowledge the fact that
programming and computer science are being introduced into the curricula in several western
nations as efforts aimed at equipping them with computational and informatics skills. They however
point out that the students are still newbies to pre-tertiary learning and so a lot more research is
needed on the best way to teach them informatics, as well as provide teachers the best approaches to
teach the same. By analyzing the published curricula for the English language, as well as the
Australian curricula for primary schools, the authors establish the main topics that are covered and
their positioning to make them suitable for learners at that level (from first to eighth year). Based on
this, the authors propose a computational thinking curriculum with a long term study objective
encompassing various topics at different years of study using suitable subjects for that age group.
The authors evaluated the pilot curriculum through assessments and observation and the results
show that this approach can enhance the effectiveness of learning and teaching programming at
lower educational levels.

According to Weintrop and Wilensky (2017) and Johnson, Adams and Cummins (2012), there is a
steady growth in the number of students studying computer science at the high school level. The
students, the authors aver, are learning using graphical programming environments based on blocks
ether during practice or before engaging in text based languages for programming. These
approaches are increasingly being used in formal education and learning setting without supporting
empirical evidence to understand the impacts of students using block based coding environments in
secondary/ high school levels. The authors undertook a five week quasi- experimental study/ survey
that compared text based and isomorphic block based environments for programming in
introductory programming classes in high schools. The study findings showed that students using
both environments improved their programming scores between the pre and post assessment
periods; however, the students using the block based environments demonstrated greater gains in
learning as well as higher interest levels in future informatics courses compared to their
counterparts. Students using the text condition felt their experiences were similar to those of
professional/senior programmers and this was more effective at helping them improve their abilities
in programming (AltexSoft, 2019). These findings have important pedagogy implications in the
design and development of teaching and learning methods for informatics at high school level.
Presently like never before, schools are dashing to get understudies prepared for software
engineering and tech capability. The US Department of Labor demonstrates that there are presently
around 500,000 unfilled tech positions because of absence of talented workers and that number is
relied upon to dramatically increase by 2024 (Olinsky and Ayres, 2013). School areas, urban
communities, and states are starting to plant hails by making explanations that software engineering
will be required for everybody. It is extraordinary to see everybody concurring that these are
abilities that will be significant for understudies, and it is incredible to see a ton of people at the
more elevated amounts making responsibilities to CS training (Morgan, 2019). Across the US,
however, the number of students seeking to study computers and computer science related courses
is rising fast, outstripping the availability of professors to teach them. In some schools, the shortage
is leading to an undergraduate divide in computing between the ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’ possibly
narrowing the path for some female and minority students to an industry that has and continues to
struggle with diversity. Between 2013 and 2017, there has been a doubling in the number of
undergraduates majoring in computers to over 160, 000while tenure track in the same faculty rose
17%, based on data from some 200 universities. The promise of upward mobility and economics is
driving the stampede to study computers. This frenzy for technology courses is being driven by the
technology and the stock bubble of the past years. Surging prices of tech stocks and their valuations
has spilled over into the tech start-ups bubble since publicly traded technology firms have greater

buying power for acquiring startups and because startups go public at higher valuations (Colombo,
2019).
Despite the fact that coding was once observed as an expertise saved for nerds and PC geeks, it's
presently viewed as a fundamental requirement for 21st century students and is turning into a key
segment of numerous educational modules, even in grade schools. First of all, essential coding
courses in schools give understudies the ability to build up their own sites, applications and PC
programming. LinkedIn information demonstrates that aptitudes like portable advancement and UI
configuration will be in intense interest in the coming years, and a 2016 Gallup report found that
40% of American schools presently offer coding classes, contrasted with simply 25% a couple of
years back. In the US, 40%of principals report that school offers computer science classes with
coding or programming while 28% of parents and 30% of teachers have shown support for the
teaching of computer science classes. Schools, however, face barriers to the implementation of
computer science classes in schools (Gallup, 2016).
In Australia, the administration has been putting resources into STEM activities lately, and coding
classes will before long be compulsory in Queensland schools. In the mean time in the UK, children
over five years have been learning the basics of coding since 2014 (Science & Technology
Australia, 2019). However, learning programming can also be useful for young learners who aren't
really keen on pursuing programming at later stages , yet might want to learn up a superior
understanding of innovation and how it's forming our reality. At its most fundamental, figuring out
how to code is figuring out how to instruct machines (Fenichel and Schweingruber, 2013).
However, this requires the authority of a critical thinking ability known as computational reasoning,
which includes breaking bigger undertakings into a sensible grouping of littler advances, diagnosing
blunders and concocting new methodologies when essential (Müller et al., 2018). learning
programming will help students improve their critical thinking skills as well as learn abstract skills
in data structures, algorithms, and this will also enhance their ability to get jobs when their finish
their various educational levels, while also making them more productive people at their workplace
(Morrison, 2013; Sáez-López, Román-González and Vázquez-Cano, 2016). As such, the authors
believe that a new approach in teaching programming will enhance teaching and learning, by using
a simple yet powerful platform, the Retr62 computer.

Section 2: Progress Report
Project Summary
This paper sought to propose a novel approach to make the teaching and learning of computers
among secondary and tertiary education students easy and fun. A literature review has shown that in
several countries especially in the West, there are concerted efforts to introduce programing in
school at an early age due to concerns of the preparedness of present young learners for a computer
driven future. The impact that computer an information technologies (ICT) have had on human life
and how people live has been tremendous, especially in the past two decades. However, this was not
high;y appreciated in the context of learning and education, given that ICT is a relatively new study
area, compared to say Physics or Mathematics. ICT was viewed more as a phenomenon that creates
greater integration and improves how people can do things; for instance, one can send an e-mail
across the world in a little more than a second instead of sending snail mail by air that could take up
to seven days. Gaps and challenges in the present approaches in teaching and learning programming
have been identified through the literature review as are the difficulties faced by teachers and
students in teaching and learning coding. Current trends in other countries with regard to
introducing programming classes as part of the curriculum have also been identified and a
conjecture arrived at that programming/ coding needs to be taught to students at an early stage. The
use of the Mega Retro65 computes as a means for learning has been proposed, and a research
method involving interviews with semi-structured questions proposed. References to be used for
further conextualization of this project have also been identified.
Evaluation of Work Done to Date
Information Gathering
So far, the team has conducted a detailed review of literature on the subject, as well as setting th
research objectives and justifying the need to conduct the research and propose a system and
methodology for teaching coding in secondary schools and universities as a subject like any other
traditional subject, say English. The introductory part of the research done so far has created the
context and background of computing and the need to undertake research on how best students can
learn computing, as well as how best it can be taught by teachers at the secondary and university
level. The background study has reveled that unlike traditional subjects, teaching and learning
coding is a bit different because most aspects are not underlined by theory, but by specific and exact
concepts. In coding, there is little or no room for variation; either one knows how to use a language
or not. It is further complicated by the various types of languages that one can learn and use to
achieve the same outcome; an application developer can use a language such as C++ to develop a
working application; they can also use another language such as Python or C#. this is unlike
traditional subjects such as math, where a formula such as linear programming has no different

variables, to say, compute maximal intercepts. By doing a detailed background study in the
introduction, the team has been able to create the link between the thesis/ research question and
objectives and the research topic as well as providing greater insights into the research topic.
The research team has also developed the research questions and their motivation; the research
question is the most important aspect of any research. The research questions are answerable
inquiry of a specific issue or concern and is the initial step in conducting any research. After
developing an idea about a topic to research, the research question defines exactly what the research
seeks to achieve. As an example, a house is made up of walls and a foundation; the walls can be
viewed as the data, the hypothesis as the foundation; in this context, the research question becomes
the ground on which the whole house stands, and this highlights its importance. This therefore
forms the foundation and gives direction to where the research is proceeding; it is the internal guide
that defines the scope of the research. The motivation for the research was to develop a better and
simple method that can be used to teach coding to young people given that traditional coding
education is reserved for more senior persons, usually at the post secondary education level, making
it appear a complex and highly challenging course.
Difficulties
While a novel approach to learning programming has been proposed through the use of the MEGA
Retro 65 computer, there is still a challenge of how to incorporate it into the formal educational
curriculum. The computer is designed like a modern portable device such as a tablet and has several
programming languages that are easy to use, as well as applications for entertainment such as games
and music. However, how can the use the computer be formalized as an educational/ learning
curriculum because while the learning approach is novel, teaching and learning programming must
still incorporate modern teaching and learning approaches. There must be a defined program to
learn, lesson outcomes, evaluation methods, and exercises that test students ability. Another
challenge is that different countries and States have different curriculum and priorities, how can the
Mega Retro 65 computer and its applications be standardized for a regular education curriculum?
Achievements so Far
Problem Identification
The existing problem on why coding has not been integrated into the formal education systems of
many countries, especially the developed nations have been identified. This research aims at
providing a solution and a different approach that will make teaching of programming among young
persons in secondary and university education level fun and exciting, while also make it easy for
teachers to effectively teach the subject. All research are aimed at either solving a problem,
providing new knowledge, or adding to the existing body of knowledge and the first important step
is to identify an existing problem, based on verifiable data and information.

Proposal on how to teach and learn programming at secondary and university level effectively
based on problem identification
The problem identification has come to a conclusion that informatics, being a new field, has created
challenges in the best ways to teach it, given that most teachers of informatics have encountered or
learned programming at senior academic levels, such as while undertaking their degrees or post
graduate education. After reviewing existing approaches to teaching and learning coding, the team
has proposed a novel approach which is the use of the MEGA 65 RETRO for computing as the
framework for effective teaching and learning of coding among young people. The MEGA 65 Retro
is the embodiment and realization of the C-65 computer introduced in 1982. the justification for its
selection is that being 8-bit, the programming is a little easier, and being open source, it provides
users with an opportunity for experimentation. Further, the Mega 65 is compatible with both C64
and C65 and this makes it easy to use in many environments. The Mega 65 supports user creativity
in a fun and exciting way with several programming languages that are easy to learn; it also comes
with paint tools and programs as well as thousands of games that suers can play and customize,
using the native programming languages provided. In addition, the Mega65 computer has mobile
capabilities, including a dual 4G (and for the future 5G) mobile phone with a long battery life that
makes it usable while on the move. The chosen/ proposed system for young people to learn
programming comes with features that complement the present lifestyles of the intended targets;
they enjoy mobility, Internet access on the go, like to play games, and enjoy testing and
experimenting. With the Retro65 computer, the learners will have fun and enjoy creating a variety
of informatics based applications, including games, using simple to use programming languages.
One of the reasons teaching programming has been a challenge is because it is seen as a preserve of
geeks and geniuses, with difficult to fathom principles, including the binary system and
programming language syntaxes and libraries that make it a dour and not so interesting subject for
youngsters. Selecting the Retro65 computer for effective teaching and learning of programming
creates a potential solution whose effectiveness will be proven through this research.
Research Approach
The team has chosen an overall research approach that entails extensive review of literature and
experimentation from which empirical data and information will be obtained to justify why using
the Retro65 computer is an ideal way to effectively teach coding in schools. The researchers base
their intuition of the effectiveness of the Retor65 because it enables students to develop interest,
because of its fun features, simplicity, and room for extensive experimentation and trial and error.
This is premised on the fact that unlike subjects such as Math, informatics has nearly unlimited
potential applications and opportunities for further development, with the several simple
programming languages in the Retor65, students will find learning coding exciting and interesting,

and provide strong foundations for better understanding of programming when they reach senior
levels such as undergraduate and post graduate school levels. Data will be collected using a surveys
with semi-structured questions targeting educators/ teachers, education policy developers, and
students in the target group of this research. Questions have been developed but are still in the Pre-
testing stage to evaluate their suitability in getting responses that will help refine the proposed
solution for this project.

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