Contents 1. Infectious diseases and classification of the organism which causes each of them to their correct domain, species and genus...............................................................................................3 2. Major issues for infection control in dealing with prion disease? What kinds of strategies are possibly to reduce the risk of iatrogenic transmission?...............................................................4 3. Viral and bacterial infection that are significant within hospital setting and their preferred habitats, means of survival and testing method and microbiological sampling required for diagnosis......................................................................................................................................4 4. Implications of this knowledge about survival of bacteria on environmental surface and the way organic matter presence prolong survival time for practice of infection control and examples of protocols that could be influenced by it..................................................................5 5. Optimum method of collection and the way each specimen must be stored if there is delay in transport and how long it takes to get a result for Viral swab, Urine, Blood culture and Respiratory swab.........................................................................................................................6 6. Major components of each step of 'chain of infection' of S. aureus and rotavirus start with the reservoir and proceeding in a clockwise direction and the intervention that will break this chain.............................................................................................................................................7 7. A surgical patient, who has undergone an abdominal hysterectomy a few days before, has a collection of pus just under the suture line, which is draining through the incision. A swab of this exudate reveals +++ neutrophils (polymorphs) and +++ E. coli, +++ Bacteroides fragilis and ++ Anaerobic streptococci. Is this infection endogenous or exogenous in origin? Give reasons for your answer. How might this infection have been prevented?.................................8 8. Explain how the following organisms are transmitted, their incubation and infectious periods and the infection control measures needed to prevent transmission...............................8 9. Recommendations and policies for AMS and AMR. What resources are available for Infection Control practitioners?.................................................................................................11 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................12 2
1. Infectious diseases and classification of the organism which causes each of them to their correct domain, species and genus Name of the infectious disease Organism which causes itDomainGenusSpecies PneumoniaStreptococcus pneumoniaeBacteriaStreptococcusS.pneumoniae HIV/AIDSHumanimmunodeficiency virus VirusLentivirusHuman Immunodeficiancy Virus(HIV-1, HIV-2) TuberculosisMycobacteriumtuberculosisBacteriaMycobacteriumM.tuberculosis MalariaPlasmodium parasiteEukaryotaPlasmodiaP. falciparum P. malariae P. ovale P. vivax P. knowlesi DiphtheriaCorynebacterium diphtheriae BacteriaCorynebacteriaceaeC.diphtheriae Viral hepatitis HepatitisAvirus(HAV), HepatitisBvirus(HBV), HepatitisCvirus(HCV), HepatitisDvirus(HDV) and Hepatitis E virus(HEV) VirusHepatovirus(HAV) Orthohepadnavirus (HBV) Hepatovirus A Hepatitis B virus Rubella (German measles) Rubella virusVirusRubivirusRubella virus MeaslesMeasles morbillivirusVirusMorbillivirusMeasles 3
morbillivirus GiardiasisGiardiaEukaryotaGiardiaGiardia lamblia Chickenpoxvaricella-zostervirusVirusVaricellovirusHuman alphaherpesvirus 3 2. Major issues for infection control in dealing with prion disease? What kinds of strategies are possibly to reduce the risk of iatrogenic transmission? Indealingwithpriondisease,themajorissuesforinfectioncontrolincludesits transmission. The disease is not transmitted through droplet, direct contact and airborne spread. The iatrogenic transmission of prion disease from individual to individual has resulted from direct transplantation, inoculation or implantation of infectious materials either peripherally or intracerebrally. It can be transmitted through samples acquired from people to non-human primates. The peripheral routes of inoculation can be the way of transmission of disease, but these routesneed largedosesthanintracerebralinoculation.Theabnormalprion protein transmission through surgical instruments at the time of operations increases the risk. The issues in infection control are related to blood products(Tsuji, and et. al., 2019). The exposure of healthcare workers to high infectivity tissue by needle stick injuries with inoculation is the issue. The risk of iatrogenic transmission can be reduced by adopting the strategies like disinfection and sterilization along with quarantine procedures, taking standard precautions while caring for patients, use of personal protective equipment like masks, gloves, gown etc. Apart from this, sterilization guidelines must be followed by the healthcare practitioners and professionals. 3. Viral and bacterial infection that are significant within hospital setting and their preferred habitats, means of survival and testing method and microbiological sampling required for diagnosis Bacterial infection:Tuberculosis The infection is caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria which is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. This disease is not very common in healthcare settings however, can be spread by air from proximal contact to the person who is infected. The organisms of tuberculosis are becoming resistant to antibiotics and antimicrobials. It is highly contagious 4
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disease which causes lung infection. The bacteria usually found in lungs and infects mononuclear phagocytes. Human is the only known reservoir of bacteria and it survive within macrophages for around 48 hours.The microbiological sampling in testing method needed for diagnosis includesThe microbiological sampling and testing method needed for diagnosis involvesCulture for AFB, Identification of AFB and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testingtuberculin skin test (TST) and IFN-γ release assays(de Cueto, and et. al., 2017). Viral infection:Hepatitis B It can cause chronic liver infections or acute infections. An acute infection exhibits vomiting, jaundice and liver inflammation and some can turn in to chronic hepatitis B. This causes lifelong infection, liver cancer, cirrhosis, liver failure and death. The virus spread through the fluids of body of an infected individual being transmitted into non infected one. In healthcare settings, the infection spread often through contaminated syringes, needles, surgical blades and other sharps. The virus can survive for at least 7 days outside the body. Its incubation period is 75 days, but can be vary from 30 days to 180 days(Morel, and et. al., 2015). The microbiological sampling in testing method needed for diagnosis includesHBsAg, HBsAg – confirmation test, anti-HBs, anti-HBc, anti-HBc IgM, anti-HBe and HBeAg. 4. Implications of this knowledge about survival of bacteria on environmental surface and the way organic matter presence prolong survival time for practice of infection control and examples of protocols that could be influenced by it The implications of knowledge about survival of bacteria on environmental surfaces and the way the presence of organic matter can prolong survival time for practice of infection control helps healthcare professionals in in controlling the infections effectively. This will help in providing the patients with proper treatment and medications which will reduce or eliminate the risk of infections. This will also help in controlling the risk of transmitting infections by implementing appropriate interventions along with transmission based precautions and standard precautions. The knowledge about bacteria survival will also help Health Care professionals in taking decisions about antibiotic treatment by keeping in mind the microbiology results(Török, Moran, and Cooke, 2016). For example: the previous versions of protocol replace by new protocol and more emphasis is given on speedy containment, new annexes are developed on non- pharmaceutical interventions, laboratory preparedness, ethical issues and communications. More preference is given over hand hygiene, use of mask and gowns, use of standardized equipment 5
and disinfectants etc.Some of the protocols are related to investigation and management of outbreak of infectious diseases, exposure of emergency service workforce to infectious diseases, Public Health on call system, reporting of infectious diseases. The protocol includes food safety protocol 2018, operational approaches for food safety guidelines 2018 and infectious diseases protocol 2018. 5. Optimum method of collection and the way each specimen must be stored if there is delay in transport and how long it takes to get a result for Viral swab, Urine, Blood culture and Respiratory swab Blood culture:The specimen of blood is collected into heparin tube which is preservative free for peripheral blood leukocytes. For serological test, the sample is collected into dry storage container. If there is delay in transportation of a specimen, then the container of specimen is refrigerating at 4 degrees centigrade or in melting ice. Generally, the freezing of sample is avoided but if delay occurs then it is frozen at -70 degrees Celsius. In the blood culture, it takes two to three days to see the bacteria, but sometimes it takes 10 days or more to show up(Persing, and et. al., 2020). Urine:The urine sample for culture is collected in the morning. A sterile, leak proof, dry and wide necked screw capped container is provided to the patient to collect the specimen. The sample is labelled and generally send to laboratory within 2 hours. But, if delay occurs the specimen is refrigerating until dispatch or is keep on ice in insulated flask. In case, the delay is longer, then 0.5 gram of borax is added in 20 ml of urine. It takes only few minutes to do urine test or the results usually get in 1 to 3 days. Respiratory swab and Viral swab:The specimen of respiratory swab is collected through nose in which a sterile fine bore catheter is pass into the nostril of patient and then to upper pharynx. After this, an intermittent suction is applied by placing thumb over the free arm end of Y suction catheter. The intermittent suction is applied continuously while withdrawing the catheter slowly and mucus is collected. Then the specimen is dispensed into sterile container and deliver to laboratory(Sheitoyan-Pesant, and et. al., 2016). If there is delay in the transportation, then the specimen is kept into minus 70 degree centigrade. The test may take about 24 hours. 6
6. Major components of each step of 'chain of infection' of S. aureus and rotavirus start with the reservoir and proceeding in a clockwise direction and the intervention that will break this chain S. aureus: Steps of chain of infectionMajor components The reservoirEnvironment,humannaresandpersontoperson contact. It is found innose, perineal area (males), groin, axillae, mucous membranes, hair, mammary glands,themouth,andtheintestinal,upper respiratory and genitourinary tracts(Goldman, and Green, 2015). The portal of exit from the reservoirItspreadintobloodstreamanddispersedby circulatory flow and infects surrounding tissues The mode of transmissionhaving direct contact with an infected person, by utilizing a contaminated object, or through inhaling infected droplets dispersed by coughing or sneezing. The portal of entry into the ‘host’respiratory tract, hair follicle, surgical wound The susceptible hostpeople with chronic conditions like vascular disease, eczema, diabetes, lung disease, cancer and people who inject drugs. Infectious agentbacterium which is a member of Firmicutes Intervention:antimicrobial treatments Rotavirus: Steps of chain of infectionMajor components The reservoirStool ofinfectedhumans and gastrointestinal tract Portal of exit from reservoirUnwashed hands which are contaminated with poop into mouth(Cowan, 2018). The mode of transmissionfecal–oral route The portal of entry into ‘host’It is oftenspread through fecal-oral route but, can alsobecausedthroughdrinkingoreating 7
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contaminated water or food. It may live on surfaces like toys, doorknobs and other hard objects for longer time. The susceptible hostChildren of age between 6 and 24 months Infectious agentDouble-stranded, non-enveloped RNA viruses which are belonging to the family Reoviridae. Intervention:Rotavirus vaccines 7. A surgical patient, who has undergone an abdominal hysterectomy a few days before, has a collection of pus just under the suture line, which is draining through the incision. A swab of this exudate reveals +++ neutrophils (polymorphs) and +++ E. coli, +++ Bacteroides fragilis and ++ Anaerobic streptococci. Is this infection endogenous or exogenous in origin? Give reasons for your answer. How might this infection have been prevented? This infection is endogenous in origin as the exudate microorganismswithin the organ space or tissue hinder the postoperative curative procedures, and can lead to wound dehiscence, superficial incisional infections and anastomotic leaks. This infection has been prevented through Antimicrobial therapy and supportive care(Cox, 2020). 8. Explain how the following organisms are transmitted, their incubation and infectious periods and the infection control measures needed to prevent transmission OrganismsTransmitted through Portal of entry Portal of exit Incubation and infectious periods Infection control measures needed to prevent transmission Staphylococcus aureus direct contactwithan infected person,infect distantorgans and respiratory tract,hair follicle, surgical wound bloodstream anddispersed by circulatory flowand infects 2and4 hours Some measuresto preventthis infection includes Keeping 8
bloodstreamsurrounding tissues handsclean through washing them thoroughly withwater andsoap, avoid contact with bandagesor woundsof otherpeople andnot sharing personal itemslike clothing, cosmeticsor towels. Influenzadropletsmade when individuals withinfluenza cough,sneeze or talk. noseby droplets from aninfected individual whosneezes or coughs respiratory tract through sneezingor coughingby infected person 3 - 4 daysThe measuresto prevent influenza includes good hygiene habitsand personal health.The hygiene habits includenot 9
touching nose, eyes or mouth, covering sneezing and coughing, frequent handwash withalcohol basedhand rub,water andsoap, avoiding close contact withpeople who are sick andwearing masks. Measlescoughingand sneezing mouth,nose, or eyes splatterof bodyfluids involving coughing, sneezing, and saliva 10 – 12 daysFor preventing measles,an individual needsto avoidwork for at least 4 to5days when initially developed measlesrash andavoid 10
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contactwith individuals vulnerable to infection like pregnant womenand young children whena person is ill. 9. Recommendations and policies for AMS and AMR. What resources are available for Infection Control practitioners? AMS Policies:The AMS policies includes open, full and timely access to data; licences about reuse of AMS journal content; data policy and guidelines for achieving and citing data sets; AMS copyright policy; and open access for BAMS authors and AMS journals. It is recommended to AMS that all the ethical guidelines and standards must be followed. AMR (Antimicrobial resistance):The AMR policy is developed to direct the review of national policies in order to better understand existing policies which address antimicrobial resistance as well as revealed the gaps in policy. This policy state the objectives which a government seeks to accomplish and sustain a decision made by organisations, government or individuals which are oriented towards addressing the issue (Simner, Miller and Carroll, 2018). 11
REFERENCES Books and Journals Tsuji, B.T., and et. al., 2019. International Consensus Guidelines for the Optimal Use of the Polymyxins: Endorsed by the American College of Clinical Pharmacy (ACCP), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), Infectious Diseases Societyof America(IDSA), InternationalSocietyfor Anti‐infectivePharmacology (ISAP), Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP).Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy,39(1), pp.10-39. de Cueto, M., and et. al., 2017. Executive summary of the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection: Guidelines of the Spanish Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (SEIMC).Enfermedades infecciosas y microbiologia clinica,35(5), pp.314-320. Morel, A.S., and et. al., 2015. Complementarity between targeted real-time specific PCR and conventional broad-range 16S rDNA PCR in the syndrome-driven diagnosis of infectious diseases.EuropeanJournalofClinicalMicrobiology&InfectiousDiseases,34(3), pp.561-570. Török,E., Moran,E.and Cooke,F., 2016.Oxford handbookofinfectiousdiseasesand microbiology. Oxford University Press. Persing, D.H., and et. al., 2020.Molecular microbiology: diagnostic principles and practice. John Wiley & Sons. Sheitoyan-Pesant, C., and et. al., 2016. Clinical and healthcare burden of multiple recurrences of Clostridium difficile infection.Clinical Infectious Diseases,62(5), pp.574-580. Goldman, E. and Green, L.H. eds., 2015.Practical handbook of microbiology. CRC press. Cowan, M.K., 2018.Microbiology: a systems approach. McGraw-Hill. Cox, R.A., 2020.Immunology of the fungal diseases. CRC Press. Simner, P.J., Miller, S. and Carroll, K.C., 2018. Understanding the promises and hurdles of metagenomicnext-generationsequencingasadiagnostictoolforinfectious diseases.Clinical Infectious Diseases,66(5), pp.778-788. 12