Research Skills Module: Observation Techniques, Advantages, and Bias

This report, a response to a Research Skills module assignment, delves into the core aspects of observation as a research method. It begins by defining observation and outlining its key purposes, while providing a detailed account of the advantages and disadvantages of this approach, including the 'Hawthorne effect'. The report then examines four key dimensions that distinguish different approaches to observation: concealed vs. non-concealed, participant vs. non-participant, structured vs. unstructured, and controlled vs. uncontrolled. Finally, it addresses the issue of observer bias, a significant disadvantage, and proposes at least two strategies for minimizing its impact on research findings. The assignment demonstrates an understanding of research methodologies, critical thinking, and the ability to analyze complex concepts within the field of research skills.

Module Code:
Module Name: Research Skills
Module Tutor
Assignment: Task 1 & 2
Student ID: xxxxxxxx
Word Count: 5053
(Excluding cover page/table of contents, written assessment question, reference /
bibliography, and tables, images or charts/diagrams)
GOOD EXAMPLE
24% SIMILARITY
COMMENTS:
Mostly key terms are defined and relevant examples appear with mostly appropriate sources.
Remember that bullet points cannot replace discussion.
Task 1 questions relating to observation includes advantages and disadvantages.
In question 2, the four dimensions are adequately explained.
Task 2 question 1discusses online questionnaires and could explain more about mechanisms.
Question 2 discusses wording. Whilst question 3 discusses reliability and validity somewhat - more
about multiple methods could be added. Here question 4 develops an argument quite well.
2nd MARKER:
Overall the portfolio is satisfactory and responds to the Tasks and shows evidence of appropriate
academic reading, although attention to paraphrasing and checking that all sources are cited is
needed. References show evidence of reading.

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Task 1
Question No 1: Describe the key purpose of observation, outlining advantages and
disadvantages of this research approach to collecting data.
Answer: Research observation consists of watching someone actions and recording
selected behaviours. Researchers might video tape what they are seeing or sound
record what is being said. By using clipboard or handheld computer, one might use a
code to record the different kinds of play behaviour they are seeing in a group of
children. They might record the number of responses, the duration and the type of
responses. While doing this sort of work, they might take samples (record periodically)
of about what is going on. Researchers might take data continuously for some period of
time. Observation can be the primary means of gathering information and data, by
simply looking at things, and photographing them, or drawing them, or describing what
they saw (Angrosino, 2012).
Astronomy, animal behavior, and sociology are three disciplines that depend heavily on
observational evidences. All science is initially based on observation. In fact,
researchers can roughly define science as a way to interpret observations. However,
according to the reliability and repeatability of the observations, different statistical
methods can be used. Pure observation is uncontrolled, which means that in terms of
time and exposed environment, there is no definite history other than the general trend
of the population. Researchers do not have a specific timetable or information about the
specific environment through which the observed item passes. As a result, the accuracy
of the predictions is compromised. Assuming that the observed population is large, only
general statistics such as mean and standard deviation can be specified (Rustin, 2012).
Moreover, if the data has some known limitations, we can use methods such as
maximum likelihood to provide estimated trends. It can also contain "reviewed" data,
which means that it can be used to predict a certain phenomena that has not yet
occurred.

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Contrary to pure observation, "controlled" experiments can understand time and
influence the environment, so more complex statistical methods can be used to make
more accurate predictions. One of the advantages of observational research is that no
matter what kind of inspection researchers perform, the results may be on site, but not
enough. Another advantage is that researchers can actually conduct observational
research, sometimes this is the only way to get any data. One disadvantage is
explained that their observations can be very biased, leading to wrong theories, such as
"no black swans" or once you calls the pattern distorted. One of the shortcomings of
observational research is the "Hawthorne effect" (Ma, et al., 2008). The Hawthorne
effect is the existence of the observer changes the behavior of the observed. The
second disadvantage is that the observer's subjective observer can notice people's
interaction and behavior, but they do not have to act according to their own behavior.
Researchers may say that passengers do not want to talk to strangers because they are
shy, but the observed person may be too involved in the editorial he read.
Since researchers cannot answer outside the predetermined range, some
questionnaires and customer approval programs will cause deviations in the results, so
outliers will be deleted. There are some important advantages and disadvantages of
observational research mentioned below,
Advantages
 Being immersive means that researchers do not have to trust the person
reporting the incident or behavior, researchers can see it directly.
 Open when saving data (or researchers need to keep the settings for
taking notes).
 Access to people in real-life situations.
 Good for explaining meaning and context.
 Access to situations where surveys are impossible or inappropriate.
 Can be strong on validity and in-depth understanding.

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Disadvantages
 Whether researchers speak or agree, their presence is likely to affect
people's behavior.
 The more researchers share in the environment, the more likely
researchers are to make subjective rather than objective discoveries
(Mash, and Foster, 2001).
 Can be viewed as too subjective.
 Time consuming.
 Overt: May affect the situation and thus the validity of the findings.
 Covert: Ethical principles contravened.
 High potential for role conflict with practitioner researchers.
Question No 2: Discuss four dimensions that distinguish various approaches to
observation.
Answer: Concealed and non-concealed observations: Concealed observations can
be defined as a research tactic in which the observer remains unseen from the course
of the study. This is well known research method in the wildlife observations in which
presences of the known or visible person have a big impact on the study (Kampiotis,
and Theodorakou, 2006). Furthermore, Non-Concealed observations have a different
style of observation in which the researcher or observer is not hidden from the subject
matter. This is not a very favourite technique for researcher because in most cases the
known company of the observer or researcher can affect the actions or behaviour of the
subject, this is called observer affect.
Participant and non-participant observation: Observer participation in various
operations of the research group is called participant observation. In participation
observation, the degree of participation is greatly affected by the nature of the research
and the field of research. It also depends on the type and requirements of the situation.
However, in the non-participant observation type, the observer does not participate in
the activities of the group, and there is no relationship between the researcher and the

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group. He monitors the facts remotely or joins the group, but never participates in
activities. He just sits in the group but is not interested in the process. The difference
between participant observation and non-participant observation is explained that the
observer himself belongs to a group, and as a member of the group, he is also fully
involved in his activities. The observer in the group remotely monitors what is happening
in the search area, but he has no active eyes (Williamson, 2013). Introduced by Edward
Winder Man, a group that is also involved in the observer and records the situation is
willing to intervene in the group and carry out activities as an observer, not only the
participants criticize the situation. In other words, to share it with the members of the
group, for example, when we examine the rural and urban conditions of Asians, we
should go there to observe what is happening. The best philosophy for participants to
observe is that we should observe phenomena that should not be asked. It can only be
observed by the participant's observation, not by any other method.
Structured and unstructured observations: Structured observations are normally
carried out according to plan and contain specific information about the units to be
observed and information to be recorded. The operations are to be observed and the
various features to be considered. These observations involve the use of special tools
to naturally collect structured data, but in the case of unstructured observations, the
basis is the basis of structural observations. Observers are free to point out what the
observer thinks is correct and relevant to the research site, and this observation method
is also very suitable for exploratory research (Jamshed, 2014). Structural observation
includes careful definition of categories. Information will be recorded; standardization of
observation conditions and more research will be provided for a systematic explanation
or test causal hypotheses. In an ideal situation, unstructured observations are
diametrically opposed to structured observations. Structured observations are
characterized by careful identification of units to be observed, information to be
recorded, selection of relevant data to be observed, and standardization of conditions.
Unstructured observations are flexible, allowing occasional changes when necessary
and necessary to store reasonable tips or questions, new observation items, and these

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new observation items appear relevant or important in different places. Observers are
always prepared to take the attitude of warning of unexpected events as a clue.
Controlled and uncontrolled observations: Controlled observations are the kind of
observations made under the influence of certain external forces. It is believed that such
observations rarely lead to improved accuracy of the research results, but these
observations, such as mechanical synchronization devices, film recording, etc can do a
good job. Make uncontrolled observations in the natural environment, and then reverse
the controlled observations (Kampiotis, and Theodorakou, 2006). However, these
observations do not include the influence or direction of any external forces.
Question No 3: A disadvantage of observation is observer bias. Discuss at least two
ways of minimizing observer bias.
Answer: Observer bias is a broad type of bias that occurs when the method or process
of observation results in a systematic difference from reality. Researchers studying
aortic dissection can choose a definition that states that pain is "severe" and ignore
other definitions, because this is what they expect to see. Almost all medical
examinations are subjective, and observer bias is almost always possible. Research
volunteers in any observational study may respond to the existence of the observer,
especially if the researcher knows that he is in his own behaviour, Webb, etc "Effects".
Generally, these effects are called reactivity. The police’s observational studies are co-
existing because observers can act as observers for police officers, and police can
"react" to the presence of observers, especially in field investigations. In the early stage,
when the research object was suspicious (Fitzpatrick, et al., 2009), this is "observation
selection bias", we suddenly noticed many things we have not done before, but now we
should be important to us in some way, and try to figure this out.
For example, a person went out and purchased the latest and greatest computer. He
invites his neighbor from next door for a drink and he notices his new computer system.
A few days later the neighbor gets the same computer system, it means his neighbor
does the same and so on. It can be interpreted as others somehow following in his

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footsteps because of his choices thus affirming he made the best choice and everyone
likes his choices. Another example is that you have your favorite song that you like to
listen to at home. You did not like it at first time, it never got your attention but recently it
brings you comfort. It is a rather old song and hardly something that would be played on
the radio or anywhere else you think. Then you go out for grocery shopping and that
same song is now played in the grocery store. Next, it is coming to play on the radio
during your drive home and so you begin to think that there must be a reason for this
because you have never really heard it played so often before (even though it could
very well be a popular song i.e. Solisbury Hill by Peter Gabriel) (Hróbjartsson, et al.,
2013). Therefore, you started to believe that this song is important and something is
trying to send you a message through the song itself as it must be trying to get your
attention through the frequency in which it's played since you began listening to it
yourself.
To reduce bias in the demographic distribution of research participant sample, it would
be a good idea to try random sampling. This is not easy in practice but for a start it
would be a good idea to reach out to strangers other than circle of friends. If research
project involves a survey then posting the survey on a website where participants are
signed up, this could be a good option. Some of these websites even provide the option
of setting pre-screening criteria based on participant demographics. An example of such
a bias would be not observing data in a straight, factual way— instead, setting an
emotional tone to the event. For instance, an observer walks into an elementary school
classroom and doesn’t just observe a child shout at the teacher. He observes the child
disrespect the teacher (Nadelhoffer, and Feltz, 2008). The word “disrespect” (while
possibly true regarding the student’s feelings), is a biased word. It has no place in an
objective scientific observation of the child. Below are some of the potential biases
related to observations,
 Confirmation Bias: We are more likely to accept information that flatters and
reinforces what we already believe than information that challenges or
contradicts it.

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 Antagonism Bias: This is a “consider the source” type deal. In an argument
where we have already concluded that the other’s position or judgment is
worthless, we tend to discount any position they advance or case they make,
regardless of whether it contradicts a position of our own.
 Primacy/ Recency Bias: It expresses in two contrary tendencies .i.e. the
tendency to overrate first impression/early results and discard or devalue later
findings in light of the first impression formed and set, or the tendency to give
overriding weight to most recent results, discarding or devaluing what came
before.
 Generalizing personal experience to universal: This is also a real thing, we
all want to believe our experience means something on a wider role than our
own scale. Sometimes we make it mean too much, stretched, hyper extended,
dislocated and sprained. We judge from our general fits-all case, ignoring the
exceptional aspects of this case, which we don’t know about yet (and might not
have a chance to grasp and weigh) (Li, 2008).
Question No 4: Provide a critical evaluation of the ethics of using concealed
observation as a research method.
Answer: There are three basic ethical research columns with more details.
 Privacy protection.
 Limit losses/ balance potential gains.
 Transparency.
Protecting confidentiality means that all descriptive information must be kept confidential
and individuals must ensure that no one else knows how to participate in this research.
Limiting harm/trade-offs based on potential benefits means that you should not hurt in
the first place, but for example, although my research can cure cancer, individuals may
feel uncomfortable due to side effects. The jury is more likely to make me conduct more
research because it can increase the flavor of ice cream. Transparency means that you
cannot lie about the research content to the participants. Before the increased interest

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in ethical research, many shady studies have been carried out, in which individuals
were unconsciously infected with syphilis and conducted research. Therefore, we have
grasped the knowledge of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and clearly defined the
approval form of the research purpose, purpose and method. Research conducted as
expected usually affects behavior (Watts, 2011). However, individuals need to obtain
information after deception and understand the actual intent of the research. Individuals
should know that they have the right to withdraw information and data from work at any
time.
Once work is done it is often written up for publication and submitted to a journal. There
have been significant changes recently that impact on quality assessment of published
work. There are three main places to publish today The traditional scientific peer
reviewed printed journals and their online counterparts where papers are subjected to
examination by three reviewers who assess the papers for relevance, any flaws in
arguments or questions of methodology and then recommend papers for publication as
they are or after authors have clarified some points, or they may reject a paper as
unsatisfactory which they sometimes are (which does not mean the research is
erroneous but that journal requirements are stringent and space is limited so only the
highest possible quality papers are published). Today with the internet not only are
there online versions of established journals but new electronic journals some paying
and many often free which may be peer reviewed or not or may rely on comments from
readers so that others can take into them into account in assessing quality (Golafshani,
2003). The subject of online publishing is highly contentious and somewhat chaotic and
requires putting in order. It means some papers could be very bad even fraudulent if not
reviewed it means that some very valuable work may go unnoticed. The situation is in
flux still not completely regulated and I suggest you research online to get up to date
with the current ideas and activities. But the generation of scientific work is increasing
and the traditional paper journals cannot possibly cope with the increase and the
slowness and other criticisms of the peer review process are what have brought about
this situation. It is the one particular change that impacts profoundly on your question.

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Task 2
Question No 1: Advancements in technology have helped data gathering via online
survey questionnaires. Discuss the mechanisms that can be used to administer online
questionnaires and outline the advantages and disadvantages that may occur.
Answer: In recent years, the online environment is being viewed by users from a new
perspective, and the evolution of technology has reshaped the world in numerous ways.
As stated by Forbes (2013), the growth of social media within the world has been
outstanding. Using the internet, social media, mobile apps, and other digital
communication technologies have become part of billions of people’s daily lives whether
it is for gaining knowledge, spreading knowledge, or gathering and analyzing data to
achieve accurate and reliable results. With the internet, it has become easier and
convenient for individuals, large organizations, as well as educational institutes, to
conduct all sorts of studies around the world and gather data via online survey
questionnaires (Stephen, 2016).
Online surveys are now one of the most widely used survey methods which are
designed for collecting large numbers of quantitative data. It is the fastest way of
collecting data from the respondents, guaranteeing a shorter time frame for collecting
responses and are time as well as cost saving (Lefever, et. al., 2007) as compared to
other survey methods, such as personally administered questionnaires and mail
questionnaires, which require spending huge amounts of money and time to achieve
optimal results. These methods were previously used for conducting research, but since
the arrival of the internet, they have been forgotten, as they have been replaced by
electronic and online questionnaires that are instead used these days.
With survey development software packages and other online survey services, it is
easier to create online survey questionnaires as web forms and distribute them by
simply sharing the questionnaire link with the respondents by either emailing them the
invitations or posting a link on social networking sites, covering a wide geographical

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area. Through such questionnaires, researchers can collect responses from all over the
world, regardless of where the respondents are from. Furthermore, they gain access to
people who might be too hesitant to meet face to face, which enables communication
among people, and they can also reach out to a large number of people through the
internet than they could have reached using face to face interviews (Wright, 2005).
These questionnaires are easily accessible and can anonymously be filled out by the
respondents, thus protecting their privacy. They can fill out these forms at their own
convenience according to their own pace and time which significantly increases the
response rate. Additionally, providing respondents with small incentives for participation,
or notifying them about the survey in advance can also increase the response rate. The
collected data from the respondents is automatically stored in a survey database in a
form that is suitable for further statistical analysis, which provides hassle-free handling
of data as well as a low probability of data errors.
However, using online survey questionnaires can also result in several disadvantages.
These surveys are not accessible to people who do not have access to the internet,
such as people residing in remote areas with no internet or elderly people who find it
difficult to use the internet with ease, which makes it difficult for the researcher to reach
this population while conducting his research. Additionally, another disadvantage
associated with online survey questionnaires is survey fraud. The respondents must be
willing to participate in the study and fill out the surveys without any bias, however, there
is a majority of people who only participate in the survey to get the incentive later
(mostly in the form of money) rather than wanting to contribute towards the study in a
positive way, which in turn negatively affects the reliability and validity of the results.
Finally, another limitation regarding online survey questionnaires is the doubts or
questions that respondents might have, but they won’t be able to clear out their queries
over the internet.

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Question No 2: Explain the principles of wording, stating how these are important in
questionnaire design, citing examples not in the book.
Answer: For a questionnaire design to be sound and appropriate; there is a set of
principles and guidelines that need to be followed, such as the principles of wording,
which is the most common issue in questionnaire design. The principles of wording refer
to factors that need to be considered while designing the questionnaire, such as the
content and purpose of the questions, the language and wording of the questionnaire,
the types and forms of questions asked, the sequencing of the questions, and the
classification of the personal data sought from the respondents. Each of these five
principles is important and needs to be taken into account while designing
questionnaires effectively because they can eliminate or at least mitigate biases in
research while maintaining relevance and accuracy.
The key step in designing a questionnaire is to determine the relevant content for the
questionnaire and consider the purpose of asking each of those questions so that
unnecessary questions are avoided. The content of the questionnaire should be
appropriate, one that is capable of providing answers to the research questions being
asked, for example, there is no point of asking a pathologist how he established a
rapport with his patients (Stone, 1993), thus, only those questions should be asked that
help solve the research problem. Moreover, it is essential that while designing a
questionnaire, promises of confidentiality are made to the respondents to reassure and
encourage replies (Burgess, 2001).
The language of the questionnaire should be such that it is easy for the respondents to
comprehend and understand because if questions are difficult to understand, then
different respondents may comprehend the same question differently, and the
researcher will collect the wrong information from the respondents, harming the
reliability and validity of the results and leading to bias. Therefore, the language of the
questionnaire, as well as the words used, should be appropriate so that proper
responses are gathered.