Motivation, Cognition and Metacognition in Learning

This study guide/workbook provides a comprehensive overview of the topics of motivation, cognition, and metacognition in learning. It covers various aspects such as self-beliefs, beliefs about intelligence, problem-solving, critical thinking, and more. The guide includes text readings, quizzes, and extended readings to enhance your understanding and improve your learning abilities. Whether you are a student or an educator, this study guide will help you gain valuable insights into the cognitive processes involved in learning.

MOTIVATION, COGNITION AND
METACOGNITION IN LEARNING
STUDY GUIDE/WORKBOOK

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CONTENTS
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY.........................................4
TOPIC 2: SELF-BELIEFS.................................................................................................5
TOPIC 3: BELIEFS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE..................................................................9
QUIZ 1.............................................................................................................................13
TOPIC 4: SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORY...................................................15
TOPIC 5: LONG-TERM MEMORY.................................................................................19
QUIZ 2.............................................................................................................................22
TOPIC 6: ENCODING.....................................................................................................24
TOPIC 7: RETRIEVAL....................................................................................................27
QUIZ 3.............................................................................................................................30
TOPIC 8: PROBLEM SOLVING AND CRITICAL THINKING........................................32
TOPIC 9: EXPERTISE....................................................................................................36
QUIZ 4.............................................................................................................................38
TOPIC 10: CLASSROOM CONTEXTS..........................................................................40
EXTENDED READINGS.................................................................................................43
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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 1: Introduction
Read Chapter 1 of your text Bruning et al. (2010). Consider the overview of cognitive psychology and
whether you agree with the themes listed in this chapter
1. Write a paragraph about one part of your learning that might be affected by your participation in
EDUC8731.
2. What questions about your learning or your students’ learning would you like to see answered?
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The learning is completely based on interactions that a person makes with another individual. From
the participation, it has been discovered that learning is not just a skill in which a person acquires the
knowledge, but, it is simply as task in which an individual search out for meaning on the basis of
previous learnings. Thus, it is recreated n the basis of various past information. As a result, there can be a
large impact on motivation level. The learnings can be highly affected as a result of cognitive
psychology as the person will be able to develop self goals and will be highly motivated for more
development.
As per the present learning, I will prefer to have the answer of how cognitive process is helpful in
solving various problems? By getting the answer of this particular question, it will help in making an
evaluation of entire cognitive process. Further, it will also aid in getting information about the practical
application of cognitive process and learning in context of real life situations.

TOPIC 2: SELF-BELIEFS
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010); Chapter 6: Beliefs about self
1. Draw a diagram showing your own interpretation of Bandura’s model of Reciprocal determinisim.
2. Explain your model in words.
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The model is having three models. One is the behaviour, second is the environmental factors, and the
third one is the person or an individual. The behaviour of the person is dependent on the influence of the
social world as well as the characteristics on personal terms. In the environment component, all the
external factors like; laws, rules and regulations, physical surroundings which are present around the
person, that will influence the change is the behaviour of the person. The individual or a person will
include the personal beliefs and their characteristics.

3. What is an example of an instance where you have vicariously learned to do something?
a. Describe the learning process that you went through in this instance.
4. What do you have high self-efficacy for?
a. What evidence do you have for this assessment of your self-efficacy?
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I was sitting in a conference hall because of the seminar. All the members were present. After half an
hour a girl enters into the room, and when she saw everybody was present, she became nervous. She was
embarrassed so to avoid that thing to happen, I just stood and invited her to sit. This was the instance
where environment component and behaviour of personal component played a role. There I have learnt
that these personal component will help me in learning to do something for other person.
Learning can be a very complex process, which can be influenced by a wide range of factors. One thing
is the observation, it is very vital in learning something. The one learning process is social learning
theory. This theory explained that observation, modelling and imitation has the main role in this process.
Social theory combines the other elements from behavioural theory. This shows that all the behaviours
can be understand by cognitive and conditioning theory, and the psychological influence can also be
taken into account like memory and attention.
Self efficacy is the ability of a person to organize execute the actions which are required to manage the
situation. I have the high self efficacy from recovering from setbacks, and also very deep interest in the
activities in which I took part. It helps me in approaching various goals, job and situation.

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Once, I was in the ground playing football with my friends. One of my friend shows some nice skills
which I was not aware of. Then due to my high self efficacy towards the game, I was taking more
interest in learning those skill. The challenge was to do that skill and learn that in very short duration of
time. I am having very high self efficacy towards facing challenges and have very strong snense of
commitment in taking activities.

5. What do you have low self-efficacy for?
a. What evidence do you have for this assessment of your self-efficacy?
6. Describe how a modeling process has been involved in either a teaching or learning activity that
you have undertaken.
a. In what ways did this help you or someone else to learn?
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I am having low self efficacy in listening. And also have lack in focusing on my personal failings and
negative outcomes.
When I was working in an organization, there I was placed in a team. So that time, in a particular task, I
was unknown of the things which were going on. Because I am having low self efficacy in focusing on
my personal goals.
Modelling processes have some techniques like mastery experience, social modelling, social persuasion
and psychological responses. In teaching and learning activity, the social modelling process is very
important. Some times people learn from seeing other. Or seeing similar people having the same
qualities will put some significant impact on learning. And psychological responses like reaction to any
situation, and what to do will also helps in learning.
Social modelling will help in learning in a lot of ways. When people faces some situation or problem in
their life and by seeing them and their ways to overcome that problem will help others also. They will get
to know how to overcome the situation and how to fight the challenges. The responses they will make
and the capability to succeed will also helps in learning.

7. What are the main principles of self-regulated learning theory?
8. What are the main principles of an attributional theory of motivation?
9. In what ways can a topic such as EDUC8731 support student autonomy?
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The 6 main principles which are used in self regulated learning theory, they are
 Motive
 Method
 Time
 Physical environment
 Social environment
 Performance
Attribution theory will help in determining what other people thinks and what people want to do.
Attribution is having three main stages, they are;
1. Behaviour have to be observed and perceived.
2. Behaviour must be determined
3. Behaviour attributed to different internal and external sources.
Attributional theory is further classified into three dimensions;
 locus of control (either internal or external)
 Stability
 Controllability
The autonomy of a student can be supported in many ways. In context of students, this support can
be gained with the help of three ways which are:
 Organisational autonomy support
 Procedural autonomy support and
 Cognitive autonomy supporting
The organisational autonomy mainly gives its contribution in supporting the decision making role so
that various management issues of classroom can be handled in a proper way. Similarly, the procedural
autonomy support, helps in furnishing various media to the students through which, they can present
their ideas by choosing any one from the available choices. While, in addition to this, the cognitive
autonomy support gives an opportunity to the students so that they can make a self evaluation of work on
the basis of self standards. Thus, each autonomy supports in giving an encouragement towards different
aspects. The organisational autonomy is helpful in developing the sense of well being while the
procedural autonomy aids in increasing the initial engagement along with the learning activities. In
addition to this, cognitive autonomy supports in developing a deep thinking level of students.

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TOPIC 3: BELIEFS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010); Chapter 7: Beliefs about Intelligence and Knowledge
1. Do you think that you hold an ‘incremental’ or an ‘entity’ theory of your own intelligence?
a. What evidence do you have to support the above response about your theory of intelligence?
2. Which do you think are more important for successful learning—performance goals or mastery
goals? What evidence do you have for your view?
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Yes, I think I hold on to those 2 theories of my own intelligence. Entity theory stated that intelligence is
a personal quality, which can not be changed. It is fixed. But according to incremental theory,
Intelligence is not fixed, and by putting more efforts it can be improved. Entity theory tells that even if
people try to learn new things, there intelligence can not be changed. But incremental theory suggest that
by learning new techniques, we can improve our intelligence. And yes, I hold on to Incremental Theory
of my own intelligence.
As I told previously, I am very much having incremental theory of the intelligence. Once I was not able
to understand a technological term, which was very much difficult and was very different from the
normal terms. So I was putting a lot of efforts and keep on practising the term and finally I have learnt
the term and have explained very easily to my friends.
For successful learning, mastery goals are more important. The evidence for the goal is my aim to learn a
theoretical topic, which was having some technical terms. Performance goals are very short term goal
and one can get demotivated after the goal is complete. But if anyone can master the technique, than he
will never forget that term, and this will be very helpful in long term success.

3. What is an example of an academic goal that you have set for yourself?
a. Would you classify it as a performance goal or a mastery goal?
b. What self-efficacy do you have for achieving this goal?
c. Have you succeeded or failed at a similar goal in the past?
i. To what did you attribute your success or failure on this past occasion?
ii. How would you classify your attribution in section (i) according to attributional theory?
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The academic goal I have set for myself is long term goal. I have noted down some skills, which I have
to master, and for that I have to put a lot of efforts and achieve that goal. Once I leaned that skill, than it
will be very helpful and easy to learn all the other things.
I will classify as the mastery goal. Because it is on long term and I have mastered all the skills which is
related to that goal.
The self efficacy for achieving this goal is high self efficacy. The problem is very difficult and
challenging and there are skills which have to be mastered. So because of high self efficacy, I put lots of
effort in learning those terms.
Yes, I have failed once for learning the similar skills, but if one can put all his efforts in learning
something, then
I can attribute to the efforts and determination that helped in getting success over the past occasion.
According to attribution theory, the previously mentioned attribute can be classified and placed under
internal attribution, where, a person attriobutes the behaviour to their own personality and beliefs.

4. On pages 140-141 in Bruning et al. is a list of guidelines for fostering adaptive goals. Translate
each of these guidelines into a specific strategy that you can use to guide your own learning in this
topic.
5. What is one strategy that you have used so far when reading the Bruning et al. text?
a. Would you describe your strategy as a dualist or a relativist strategy for constructing knowledge?
6. Do you think you are a quick learner? What evidence do you have for this self-assessment? How
important is this quickness for your achievement?
7. Do you think you are a persistent learner? What evidence do you have for this self-assessment?
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Providing feedback
Self regulated learning
Fostering intrinsic motivation
Focussing on provided feedback so that improvements can be done.
My strategy can be described as a relativist strategy where truth, right and wrong and reasonings are
taken as a justified authority.
Yes. I learn things quickly where i learned the soft skills in 15 days. This helped me in my professional
and personal life as well.
Yes i have less feedbacks on the things i have learned and performed practically.

a. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being quick and/or persistent?
8. Do you think you are a discovery, didactic, or conceptual change teacher? What evidence do you
have to support your answer?
9. What evidence do you have from observing one of your students (or your associates) about their
attributions for success or failure?
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Advantage- development in career, personality improvement, enhancement in knowledge.
Yes, because I use to make research on topic which i have to teach the students so that their basic
concepts can be made quite clear.
They have a dedication for performance and focus on provided feedback on their performance so that
they can make improvements to get success.

self-assessed grade [ ]
QUIZ 1
PLEASE SELF ASSESS YOUR QUIZ, AND GIVE YOURSELF A GRADE OUT OF 10
Treat this as a time where you do test your understanding, so do this first when you think that
you have a good understanding of these concepts and without making use of your readings as
you do it. If you assess yourself as having a poor understanding of a concept, go back and
read about that concept and then give the definition again. Just enter the second definition
under the first and then assess this second definition. Include both first and second self-
assessments.
1. From your reading, complete the following table.
Concept Definition
Attributions Explaining the reasons of a particular behavior
and events.
Autonomy & control Putting a proper control on a behavior
Entity and incremental theories of
intelligence
It favors to the concept that their existing
knowledge is malleable, can be enhanced
through extra efforts.
Epistemologies of knowledge historical study of efforts
Evaluation/assessment Checking the performed tasks to ensure its
authenticity and credibility.
Feedback/rewards Providing extra notes on deviations occurred in
performance to make improvements.
Intelligence Aptitude
Interest The urge of doing something.
Modeling Art of creating a presentation
Performance & mastery goals Goals that are focused on learning and self
improvement
Self-efficacy One’s strong belief to succeed in a particular
task.
Self-regulated learning The learning process which is developed by
oneself.
Social cognitive theory It entails that the knowledge can be acquired by
observing others.
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2. Draw a diagram showing your current cognitive schema for what you know about student
motivation.
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TOPIC 4: SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORY
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 2: Sensory, Short Term and Working Memory
1. What use are models, such as the modal model, for thinking and talking about memory?
2. What are the components of the modal model of memory?
3. What are the main assumptions of contemporary information processing theory?
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This model refers to three components which are sensory register, short term store and long term store.
sensory register, short term store and long term store.
 Information is provided by environment
 Processing system turns information into systematic ways
 Main objective is to specify the process and structures

4. What is required for perception to occur?
5. What is the estimated capacity of the visual sensory register?
6. What is the estimated capacity of the auditory register?
7. What are the implications of the limitations on the sensory registers for classroom teaching?
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Deep thinking and interaction with stimuli.
Relative ability of holding upto 12 items.
Common range of 5-9 bits.
Less research on the working system of central executive
Model does not explain connection between LTM and working memory.

8. Context affects the allocation of meaning to a perceptual event. Describe an event where you and
another person interpreted the same information in different ways. What was the impact of your
different interpretations?
9. Think of one task that you have learnt to the stage of automaticity:
a. Try performing that task whilst speaking out loud each step of the process.
b. Did your performance get better or worse?
The reading habit. This habit got better with increased practice.
10. Think of how you go about reading the chapters in the text for this topic.
a. What attention focusing strategies do you use?
b. How do you go about activating your prior knowledge?
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While learning, any stimulus that is presented repetitive times may stimulate the persons to have
different interptretations.
Try to be in peaceful environment with less disturbances.

c. What strategies do you use to manage your essential processing of the text?
d. What strategies do you use to reduce cognitive overload?
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By practicing
Segmenting
Pre training
Modality principle
Present information via the visual channel and via the verbal channel
Break content into smaller segments
Remove non-essential content

TOPIC 5: LONG-TERM MEMORY
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 3: Long term memory: Structures & models.
 Reading 5: Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition. American
Psychologist, 51, 355-365. [Note: this is available on eReserve]
1. Develop your professional language in the field of cognitive psychology. Write in your own words
the meaning of each of these terms:
a. Declarative knowledge
Declarative knowledge has reserved more attention in cognitive research than can be justified on the
basis of the significant of procedure knowledge for behavior.
b. Procedural knowledge
It is also known as imperative knowledge which are done inn the performance of task. It is used to
solved the problems by using intellectual property of a company and it is transferred when the company
is purchased.
c. Conditional knowledge
It include all the knowledge which are require for conditional situation such as intelligence. It means
that knowledge about psychological feature, or more informally, thinking about thinking.
d. Episodic memory
It is known as such event which are related to the time, places, associated emotions etc. that can
explicit stated. It is a collection of past experience which are related to the particular time and place.
e. Semantic memory
Semantic memory is well-defined from episodic memory, which is our representation of experiences
and special case that happen during our lives, from which we can animate at any given point
f. Explicit memory
It is the one of the long-term human memory, which is conscious, intentional and based on past
experience and concepts. It is two type episodic memory and semantic memory.
g. Implicit memory
It is also a type of long-term human memory, which are received and used unconsciously and which
can affect the thoughts and behaviors of the person. It is the most common form of procedural memory
which help the people to perform a certain tasks.
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h. Concepts
Cognitive psychology is the study of science of mental processes or thoughts and expressions. This
process includes that how the information is collected, presented and transform as a knowledge.
i. Attributes of memory
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is
vital to experiences and related to limbic system, it is the retention of information over time for the
purpose of influencing future action
j. Defining attributes
These are the feature of a stimulus that one must look for to decide iof that stimulus is a positive
instance of the concept.
k. Rule governed
Rule-governed behaviour has been defined as actions controlled by means of verbal stimuli Two
competing clinical theories have related rule-governed behaviour and depression. An alternative
account posits that depression (and other psychopathology) may result from excessive rule-governed
behaviour, particularly excessively following rules that dictate experiential avoidance
l. Prototype governed
A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and
users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical
one. In some design workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called
materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.
m. Probabilistic
It is a situation or model where there are aggregate achievable result, each having different grade of
cognitive state or uncertainty of the results. It is often taken to as the idea which are actual, random
which is related to probabilistic.
n. Propositions
Propositions are used in contemporary philosophy. They are shareable objects of attitudes and the
primary bears of the truth and falsity.
o. Networks
The generic term "network" refers to a group of entities (objects, people, etc.) which are connected to
one another. A network, therefore, allows material or immaterial elements to be circulated among all of
these entities, based on well-defined rules. A group of computers and peripheral devices connected to
each other. Note that the smallest possible network is two computers connected together.
p. Schemata
In psychology and cognitive science a schema describes a pattern of thought or behavior that
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organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. It can also be described as a
mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system
of organizing and perceiving new information.
q. Productions
To developing the goods or manufacturing the goods and services.
r. Scripts
A script is a system or series of direction that is taken or transfer out by some other program rather
than by the computing machine central processing unit.
s. Imaginal coding system
By using pictures, plotting the graphs coding can be done.
t. Verbal coding system
Such coding which can be in verbal manner or oral manner.
u. Dual coding theory
Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition, was speculate by Allan Paivo of the University of Western
Ontario in 1971.
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v. Nodes
A physical network node is an active electronic device that is attached to a network, and is capable of
creating, receiving, or transmitting information over a communications channel.
w. Relational links
Keys factors indicating feelings of closeness among group members, defined by group members’
attitudes and perceptions such as cohesiveness, perceptions of process, and satisfaction with group
outcomes.
x. Spreading activation
Spreading activation is a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic
network.
y. Serial processing
Serial memory processing is the act of attending to and processing one item at a time. This is usually
contrasted against parallel memory processing, which is the act of attending to and processing all items
simultaneously.
z. Parallel processing
Parallel processing is the processing of program instructions by dividing them among multiple
processor with the objective of running a program in less time.
2. In either a diagram or in words describe what links you make between schemata and learning.
3. Why would it be the case that information coded in both the verbal and the imaginal coding
systems be more easily remembered?
4. How could we exploit the imaginal system in teaching?
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A schema (plural schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behaviour that organizes
categories of information and the relationships among them. but learning involve various theories,
literature that are received by the person.
Pavio theory is a case which is related to the verbal and imaginal coding system are to be more easily
remembered.
Tools for doing this are imagery, metaphorical thinking, inclusive myth, specific learning
techniques, and approaches suited to the various kinds of intelligence represented in an
individual and in a group.

self-assessed grade [ ]
QUIZ 2
PLEASE SELF ASSESS YOUR QUIZ, AND GIVE YOURSELF A GRADE OUT OF 10
In Bruning et al. (2010) Chapters 2 and 3 we have read about a number of different concepts
about sensory, working memory and long-term memory.
Treat this as a time where you do test your understanding, so do this first when you think that
you have a good understanding of these concepts and ideas and without making use of your
readings as you do it. If you assess yourself as having a poor understanding of a concept or
idea, go back and read about that concept or idea and then give the definition again. Just enter
the second definition under the first and then assess this second definition. Include both first
and second self-assessments.
1. Draw a diagram of the modal model of memory.
2. From your reading, complete the following table.
Concept Brief definition
Semantic memory Part of long term memory
Episodic memory Unique memory of particular events
Declarative knowledge Factual knowledge and information
Procedural knowledge Knowledge used for performing some task
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Conditional knowledge Knowledge of applying the procedural knowledge
Schemata Pattern of thinking or behavior
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3. What are three critical roles that schemata play?
4. How can you proceduralise your developing knowledge of cognitive psychology so that it is
useful for your own learning and teaching practice?
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Describing a thought, organising category of information and entailing relationship between various
information.
By making continuous improvement and developing existing knowledge.

TOPIC 6: ENCODING
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 4: Encoding processes
1. What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
2. Describe two elaborative rehearsal techniques you use to remember key ideas in the Bruning et al.
text.
3. What imaginal techniques do you use to remember the Bruning et al. text?
4. How could you teach your students to use:
a. elaborative rehearsal techniques, and
b. imaginal techniques
to enhance their ability to remember lesson content?
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Maintennance rehersal refers to the situaitoon where one in order to maintain body do rehersal. On other
hand, elabourative technique is one under which one think about term that need to be remember by an
individual.
Thinking of picture is the one of method of mentioned rehersal. Apart from this, mnemonics is the one o
the method that can be followed under elaborative rehearsal techniques.
In order to to remember things elaborative rehearsal techniques can be used.
I will instruct my student to learn things by using imagination power. By doing so relationship between
multiple things can be identified.

5. Describe a mnemonic that you used when you were at school:
a. Did it work for you?
b. Why?
c. Do you teach it to your students?
6. What is the central concept underlying the need for schema activation in learning?
7. Identify two deep processing strategies do you use for understanding and remembering the
Bruning et al. text.
a. Are your strategies working for you?
Yes
b. What revisions/improvements could you make to your strategies?
8. What are examples of declarative, procedural and conditional metacognitive knowledge that you
have used whilst studying the Bruning et al. (and other) text?
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I use mnemonic method and under this I match current infomraton with the facts that are related to past
and I know very well. By doing so I associate present and past information and remember lots of things.
This method work for me because I was in position fromm where can retain things in memory. Yes, I
teach these things to students.
The basic concept is that one need to associate different things with each other and by doing so things are
retained in human brain.
Structural and phenomic processing are the two main deep processing strategies that are used for
understanding and remembering things.
Things need to be more integrated with each other.
Procedure metacognitive knowledge is increased by developing vast knowledge about procedures.
Conditional knowledge refers to the awareness that I have about if certain situation happened then what
will be its consequence. Under declarative knowledge I identify the factors due to which I may face
difficulty in understanding concepts.

9. What is an example of a metacognitive strategy that you have noticed one of your students
(friends) using?
10. Can you recall your school teachers explicitly teaching you any metacognitive strategies? If so,
what were the strategies?
11. Make a list of the five criteria of a good strategy user.
12. What is one relationship between strategy instruction and self-efficacy?
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Mnemonics is the metacognitive strategy that is used by friends.
Mnemonics and picture association are those relevant strategies.
Intellectual.
Ability to understand conditions.
Ability to make best choice.
Comprehensive about effectiveness of technique.
Make decision after detail discussion.
Strategy and efficacy are interrelated to each other as one if formulate strategy in right way then in that
case it can better handle the situation.

TOPIC 7: RETRIEVAL
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 5: Retrieval processes
1. Think about the open book quizzes. How could completing a quiz help your learning?
2. Why might do the quiz more than once be helpful to your learning? Would the same apply to your
students’ learning?
3. How do you think contextual cues work?
4. Why would we want to broaden the range of cues that will trigger knowledge to be remembered?
How could we do that?
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Open book quizzes are the major factor that affects the learning problem in a positive manner. Each and
every type of quizzes helps to improve the learning skills of the person and increase their efficiency as
well.
Quizzes are very helpful to improve the learning skills of each individuals and yeah this process is
applied for students learning purpose, Because it is very helpful.
I think that this type of contextual cues work in positive manner and improves the quality of learning
skills and manage the process of improvement. This learning problem is directly related to the student's
personality and their performance as well
The range of cues must be broadened so that an easier learning can be developed. This can be done by
remembering some signs and allotting some easily identifiable points to the subject matter.

5. When you are reading the Bruning et al. text, what generating activities do you use?
6. In what ways do we use schemata to guide retrieval of memories?
7. What is the difference between reconstructive memory and rote memory?
8. What links can you make between what researchers know about memory savings and the relative
benefits of distributed versus massed practice?
9. Do you think that all material to be learned is suitable for constructive learning and reconstructive
remembering?
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Self learning and motivation
By making a sign for all available information.
Reconstructive memory: It refers to elaborate memory that signifies act of remembering is
influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination.
Rote : memorization technique based on repetition
The things that are massed practice will be remembered for a longer term. Things that have been
included under distributed practice may be forgotten if not repeated frequently.
No

10. Think about the mnemonic that you have described in the “Encoding’ section.
 If you found it helpful, what were you doing at the time of encoding that helped you at the time
of retrieval?
 If it was not very helpful, what could you do at the time of encoding to improve the
effectiveness of this mnemonic at the time of retrieval?
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Rehearsal

self-assessed grade [ ]
QUIZ 3
PLEASE SELF ASSESS YOUR QUIZ, AND GIVE YOURSELF A GRADE OUT OF 10
Treat this as a time where you do test your understanding, so do this first when you think that
you have a good understanding of these concepts and without making use of your readings as
you do it. If you assess yourself as having a poor understanding of a concept, go back and
read about that concept and then give the definition again. Just enter the second definition
under the first and then assess this second definition. Include both first and second self-
assessments.
1. Describe three types of teaching strategies can we use to encourage elaborative processing.
2. What metacognitive strategies do you think your students should use in their learning?
3. Bruning et al. write about the generation effect. What are two key reasons for the effectiveness of
the generation effect?
4. If context affects encoding and retrieval, in what ways can we improve the memory enhancing
contexts of learning for classroom students?
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Representational imagery
Elaborative interrogation
Summarising
Keyword method
Asking questions
Encouraging self reflection
Self questioning
Teaching strategies directly
Lexical activation hypotheses
Procedural account
Multifactor transfer-appropriate processing account
Through rehearsals

5. Do you think that your learning outcomes would be better if we had an exam at the end of this
topic? Consider the Bruning et al. discussion on recognition and recall, and justify your answer.
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Yes. The exams make students a better learner and focussed on teachings.

TOPIC 8: PROBLEM SOLVING AND CRITICAL THINKING
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 8: Problem solving & critical thinking
1. Think about a problem that you currently have. What is your current state? What is the goal state?
a. Is your problem an ill-defined or a well-defined problem?
b. Will trial and error be an appropriate strategy to solve your problem? Why or why not?
c. Will means-end analysis be an appropriate strategy to solve your problem? Why or why not?
2. Do you recall when you have used insight to solve a problem? Can you describe what went on in
your head when the insight occurred?
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Learning is the problem that affects the quality performance and it also affect the personality of human
being as well. To overcome this learning problem my goal is to attend several training sessions related to
learning skills and improves quality of learning as well.
This learning problem is well-defined problem and because this problems is easily reduced and easily
overcome by effective strategies applying in that particular case.
Yes, the mean end analysis will be helpful in solving the problems as it will entail in advance about the
ultimate goal that has to be attained. As a result, solution of problem will be easier.
This trial is appropriate to solve this problem and this effective strategy help to overcome this problem in
an effective manner as well. Learning sessions are very effective tool to manage and improve learning
skills in personal as well as professional sections.
The insight was used for solving the problem of various barriers that were coming in the process of
learning.

3. Think about functional fixedness. Provide an example where you have spent ages doing something
one way, and then suddenly realized a new and better way? What was the trigger to your new
understanding?
4. Bruning et al. note that good problem solvers are better than poor problem solvers at
distinguishing relevant from irrelevant constraints on problem solving. Describe an example of
this in yourself or your own students.
5. What do you think Bruning et al. mean by categorizing problems according to their deep
structure? Provide an example.
6. One problem that you have each week is to read and understand the Bruning et al. text.
a. Do you divide this problem into steps? If so, how do you do this?
b. How many steps do you use?
3 steps.
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The functional fixedness refer to the the bias according to which a person use to apply a newer technique
for solving a particular problem. To solve a mathematical question, I tried the traditional way, but by
applying my own way I was able to solve it with better understanding.
The good problem solvers are better than poor solvers at various levels as they can have a better level of
understanding.
The problems categorisation is necessary as it helps in structuring the issue so that a better understanding
can be developed for solving the issue.
Yes,
It can be done by dividing into some steps of
To identify the clear meaning.
Take help of experts and solve the barriers in understanding

c. What happens at each step?
d. How do you know when you have reached your goal state?
7. What are the implications of Recht and Leslie’s 1988 study for the reading choices you give to
your students (or guide your students to select)?
8. How does the practice of teaching times-tables in primary school relate to the reading you are
doing about deep versus surface structures of problems?
9. In what ways do you think automaticity and practice are related? How much practice is too much?
What evidence can you provide to justify your thinking?
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At each step, the student moves further towards solving the problem of reading and understanding.
When the student will be able to read and understand the things on their own, the goal state will be
attained.
When the student will be able to read and understand the things on their own, the goal state will be
attained.
The teaching related to the time tables in primary school is related with having an analysis over deep and
surface learnings where the deep learning refers to in depth analysis while surface structure refers
towards the careless analysis of a problem.
Automaticity refers to the ability where the person does not make much effort in thinking as he has
developed the knowledge through learning and practices.
Practice refers to the repetition of the work that improves the skill and learning continuously.

10. How can we encourage help-seeking, without stigma, in classrooms?
11. Describe an example of where you have transferred knowledge from our EDUC8731 topic to your
own teaching or learning. Would you describe it high-road or low road transfer? Would you
describe this instance as near or far transfer?
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By teaching its effectiveness among the students.
By giving a training on soft skills, which was a high road transfer as it helped in improving the
knowledge level.

TOPIC 9: EXPERTISE
 Reading 9a: Anderson, J. R. (2010). Expertise. In Cognitive psychology and its implications (6th
ed., pp. 279-311). New York: Worth. [Note: this is available on eReserve]
1. What is the purpose of Anderson’s technique of inserting short summary sentences at the end of
each section? Do you think it works?
2. What does the power law of learning tell us about incorporating time for practice into our lessons?
3. What do you think is the relationship between tactical knowledge and students’ success or failure
at university entrance exams?
a. What do you think is the relationship between tactical knowledge and intelligence tests?
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The technique of inserting a summary sentence at the end of each section is very helpful and shows
an ideal way of writing. The summaries at the end of any research or articles help in developing an
understanding related to that article. Besides this, through these summaries, a reader can easily
understand the major point which has been discussed in the paragraph, in addition to this, the summary
highlights the main points and the results that have been achieved after entire analysis. Thus, it works
really good and aids a lot to have a quicker understanding of a lengthy discussion.
The power law of learning entails that with each number of repetition that is followed at the time of
performing a task, the time taken to accomplish it decreases. This decrease in time is followed by the
learning which is developed within an individual as a result of more learning. Therefore, the time taken
in completing a piece of work gradually decreases. In addition, it states that time taken in retrieving an
information from the memory depends on use of information that has been done in the past.
The tactical knowledge helps in accomplishing the tasks with the help of a proper understanding. As
per this, the chances of getting success by a student increases. Thus, in context of university entrance
exams, a student can have more chances of getting success through tactical knowledge by application of
his/her IQ. If a student gets failed then, there may be the condition of less focus on right tactical
knowledge and less understanding.
The tactical knowledge refers to the intelligence of a person which is possessed by an individual in
borne or has been developed through various learnings. These can not be transferred verbally or in
writing. Therefore in intelligence tests, it has a close link and a great role where the tests will be
completely attempted on the basis of existing IQ, skills, talent and understanding of an individual.

4. What is an example of strategic knowledge that experienced teachers apply?
5. Anderson discusses the ability of Chess masters to recognize familiar patterns. Outline your
understanding of the relationship between pattern recognition and chunking as a memory strategy.
6. In Bruning et al. (2010) you read about different kinds of feedback that teachers can provide to
students. What kind of feedback supports deliberate practice? Provide an example.
7. What does the example of the Brazilian school children tell us about the nature of the contexts that
support learning?
8. Do you think that componential analysis and mastery learning is appropriate for all kinds of
learning?
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The strategic knowledge can be understood as a level of knowledge that gives a potential to the
individual to decide about the next task that must be performed. A teacher applied the strategical
knowledge with the help of coolecting information about rules, insights, models and various
understandings that give a right information regarding the application of strategic knowledge.
As per the analysis, it was found that there was not much difference between the chess masters and
duffer players. The only difference was that the masters use to make a better move than duffers. The
simple logic behind this was, the masters use to recognise the common pattern and use to make less
number of moves. The masters had a better ability to recognise large number of patterns as a result of
their vast experience.
In the deliberate practice, the learners are given feedback related to their performances, so that an
evaluation can be done and deviations can be corrected. For instance, the violinists increased
development in their right cortical regions corresponding to their fingers as a result of feedback given by
their tutors on their performance.
The example of Brazilian school children entails that the knowledge which is applied in real life
context can be easily understood and solved. While, if same problem is given in context of theoretical
practice as an experiment, their performance was lower. This shows the failure of expertise to transfer
the real life problem into class room.
The componential analysis includes the analysis of all elements while mastery learning implies to
follow the performance of students on various components. Thus, both favour the appropriate learning
for all kinds of learning where typical instructions are necessary to be followed.

self-assessed grade [ ]
QUIZ 4
PLEASE SELF ASSESS YOUR QUIZ, AND GIVE YOURSELF A GRADE OUT OF 10
Treat this as a time where you do test your understanding, so do this first when you think that
you have a good understanding of these concepts and without making use of your readings as
you do it. If you assess yourself as having a poor understanding of a concept, go back and
read about that concept and then give the definition again. Just enter the second definition
under the first and then assess this second definition. Include both first and second self-
assessments
1. What are the three stages of skill acquisition?
2. Write out an if-then production rule for completing this quiz.
3. Outline the steps in any one of the problem-solving procedures that you have read about.
4. What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and deliberate practice?
5. What kind of feedback to students supports deliberate practice?
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Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
The present quiz can be completed with the help of applying the If condition, then action rule.
Problem description, communication, performance, evaluation.
The maintenance rehearsal refers to rehearsal which is used to maintain information for a short duration.
While, the deliberate practice is an attempt to have an expertise by taking more time for learning a
common pattern for long duration.
Giving feedback on their performances.

6. List the metacognitive strategies that you know you use. Write one example for each of these
strategies of when/for what you use them?
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Explicit teacher modeling- For solving mathematical problems
Reading comphrehension- In deciphering the layers of meaning

TOPIC 10: CLASSROOM CONTEXTS
 Text Reading: Bruning et al. (2010) Chapter 9: “Classroom contexts for cognitive growth”.
1. What social processes are involved in learning?
2. Outline your understanding of the phrase “children are active learners”.
3. Outline your understanding of the terms (a) “constructivist learner” and (b) “constructivist
teacher”.
4. In what way might discussions help you to construct your own knowledge in the domain of
educational psychology?
5. What might inhibit effective discussions? Why?
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The social process of learning includes the interaction with various elements of environment on the basis
of which, a detailed learning within an individual can be developed.
The children are active learners as at the age of 1-14 years, their mind use to develop at a faster rate.
Besides this, everything they see is new for them because of which the knowledge related to these new
things are acquired easily which answer their curiosity.
The constructivist learner is that person who acquires the knowledge on the basis of their personal
experience. The constructivist teacher's concept is based on the learner's ability to have an active
participation in the learning process.
In context of educational psychology, the discussion help in enhancing the knowledge level as it gives
the opportunity to exchange the ideas and experiences.
The effective discussions can be inhibited due to lack of knowledge and experience, inappropriate
communication technology and lack of attention.

6. How will a dialectical constructivist perspective manifest itself in a classroom?
7. What are the roles of social processes in supporting learning within the ZPD?
8. In what ways can the apprenticeship model transfer to classroom teaching and learning?
9. Schön wrote about “knowing in action, knowledge in action and reflection in action”. What other
words do we have, from information processing theory, to describe these kinds of knowledge?
10. What features identify good quality classroom discourse that has the potential to promote
cognitive growth?
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In a classroom, the dialectical constructivist perspective uses the information that seems to be right
so that they can construct a view on the basis of what they know.
The ZPD refers to the ability of a learner in his performance which he/she can don within a proper
guidance and without proper guidance. Thus, the role of social process increases here when an individual
applies the knowledge which he has earned from the interaction done with environment.
The apprenticeship model refers to the physical integration of an individual in the learning process
which can be understood as the workplace training. In classroom teaching and learning, this can be
understood as an application of knowledge in practical aspect.
Sensory memory, Working memory, Long term memory.
Quality teaching and learning, interaction with physical and social environment, allowing students to
stretch themselves cognitively.

11. What strategies do you have for including “non-contributing” students into a class discussion?
12. If the students construct their own knowledge, what is the role of the teacher?
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By assigning the responsibility to the non contributing students so that they can have the feeling of
responsibility and can include themselves in contribution of learning.
To give them guidance and make corrective actions if any deviations re there in their developed
knowledge.

EXTENDED READINGS OF YOUR OWN CHOICE
Use the remaining weeks of this topic to search out literature to support and inform your study in this
topic.
Look back to your questions that you wrote in Topic 1.
 Are you able to answer them now?
 Do you need to search out additional readings in order to answer your questions?
 Do you need to design a research project in order to answer (at least) one of your questions?
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