Obesity in Males and Females at Different Age Brackets

This paper presents a detailed literature review on the obesity among the male and female population within different age groups or age brackets in Australia. The review focuses on different aspects of obesity in accordance with different research findings and publications.

Running head: OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS
Obesity in Males and Females at Different age Brackets
Name
Institution

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 2
Introduction
Obesity and overweight is one of the global health issues affecting both developed and
developing countries. According to McLean et al. (2016), obesity results from a sustained
imbalance of energy that occurs when the intake of energy from drinking and eating is greater
than the rate at which it is expelled from the body through physical activity. The resulting energy
imbalance can also be influenced by the genetic or biological characteristics as well as the
lifestyle of an individual (Shaw, 2012). This paper presents a detailed literature review on the
obesity among the male and female population within different age groups or age brackets in
Australia. The review focuses on different aspects of obesity in accordance with different
research findings and publications.
Discussion and Analysis
Different researchers have published a variety of information aimed at creating a picture
of obesity and overweight in Australia. The results show that obesity and overweight is one of
the primary public health complications affecting Australians (Maher, 2010). The study adopted
the used of randomized sampling with the aim of summarizing factors influencing the energy
intake of different age groups. It also examines the expenditure and contribution to the rising
prevalence of obesity in Australia and other parts of the world. The study focused on the
different strategies that can be used by the community mainly to reduce the prevalence of obesity
among different age groups. On the other hand, Allender and Kremer (2015) adopted
quantitative study in their quest to evaluate the socio-demographic issues affecting the health and
wellbeing of Australians. The study defines socio-demographic as a set that is characterized by

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 3
its sociological and demographic factors). It entails age, sexual orientation, religion, race,
income, gender, marital status, death and birth rate, education level, medical history and
accessibility among many others. The study reports that socio-demographic factors are always
used to analyses the social, economic and medical status of the population as supported by
Jiang and Telford (2017). In public health, the socio-demographic factors have been used to
analyses and compare different kinds of disease among different populations and states. Several
experts such as ad-hoc committee of the National Academics of sciences, Engineering and
Medicine have explored how various social and demographic factors affect the health outcomes.
Different studies have also recorded different results on the rate of obesity in different
state. Most of the population in the developed countries tends to have low rate of physical
activity unlike the underdeveloped countries that tend to engage in physical work (Lacy et al.,
2015). In New South Wales (NSW), physical inactivity is considered as the major causes of
obesity since above 85% of the population in that state tend not to do not meet the minimum
recommended guidelines for the physical activity that recommend that each individual to have a
minimum of 150 minutes of moderate or vigorous of activity in a week. Studies however, just 6
out of 7 people within the stat always fail to meet this recommendations, and only 7% of children
are meeting suggested amount of 60 minutes of vigorous physical activity. Show that the
physical activity helps in burning out excess calories in the body that would have been deposited
on the body increasing the mass weight. Additionally, physical activity helps in controlling the
appetite rate, hence helps in controlling the amount of food being consumed by an individual.
Additionally, studies indicate that France record the lowest rate of obesity since most of the
people especially in Paris prefer to walk or ride their bikes, unlike in the United States where

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 4
there are numerous cars in the streets. Clark, Davis, and Zubrick et al. (2016) denote that
different diseases such as cancer, obesity and cardiovascular disease have been attributed to
different inequalities posed by the racial, ethnic, education and accessibility to health services.
The statistics are even more troubling when children were included. 20% of all children
of ages 2-4 were obese in Southern Asia as pointed out by Olds et al (2010). This is a very high
figure because it translates to 20% of Australia’s children. With such levels of obesity recorded
in infants, serious public health questions must be asked. Going by gender, the proportion of
boys against girls who were obese was recorded as 7% against 9% (Olds et al. 2010). This study
showed that male children had a higher chance of being overweight but not obese at the age
interval between 16 and 17. On the other hand, their female counterparts were highly likely to be
overweight but not obese at ages between 8 and 11. The age where boys recorded the highest
prevalence of obesity remains 16-17 while girls had the highest prevalence of obesity between
ages 5-7 years.
Obesity is currently a major global health concern in different states since it does not only
reduces the quality of life by affecting the daily activities, increases the rate of moiety, mortality,
but also creates great financial problem as so much money is spend to manage the issues
expanding the healthcare expenditure (Glenister & Pierce, 2017). The study indicates that above
30% of the population Queensland (QLD) are facing either overweight or obesity issues. By
2016, above 1.9 billion adults; that is 18 years and above are overweight and 650 million people
among the population are obese, while over 341 million children; age between 1-19 years are
overweight.

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 5
Relation of social-demographic factors and obesity
Race /Ethnicity
Race refers to the physiological subgroups that are characterized by the biological aspects
in human populations while ethnicity refers to the different culture and subcultures that exist in
human societies (Utter et al., 2010). When there is existence of these two aspects: race and
ethnicity in a larger population, body weight differences tend to be observed (Stevenson et al.,
2018). Studies show different ethnic patterns in body weight and obesity with minority
populations experiencing the highest occurrence of obesity. The beliefs attitudes and perception
about body weight differ in these ethnic groups as the minority societies tend to accept higher
body weights than other populations. In Australia, the obesity is high among the Aboriginal
population that the non-aboriginal population (Jackson, 2017). Possible explanations to this
pattern are that most of the Aboriginal are poor and unable to afford more than three meals per
day; therefore, they tend to skip some meals especially breakfast and lunch. The feeding pattern
makes the supper to be made in excess, hence they over consume food. The large consumption
leads to deposit of the excess nutrients and fats in the body increasing the body weight.
Economic
Most of the developed economies tend to have plentiful sources of relatively cheap foods
that are available to the population (Glenister & Pierce, 2017). From the low of economics of
demand and supply, the prices of such food tend to be low since the supply is high, and the
prices of these foods have great impacts on the food choices people make. In the developed
countries, the cheaper food variety entails those that are dense in energy, providing more calories

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 6
such as French fries among many others. Studies show that developed countries such as United
States experience high rate of obesity than the undeveloped economies that access low fat diets.
Culture refers to the pattern of rules and plans that govern behaviors of particular people.
Culture permeates almost all aspects of a person life from how one thinks and how one behave
towards food. Studies show that there are about 8000 cultures across the world with more
information on the minor cultures such as Aboriginal tribe (Stevenson et al., 2018). These studies
have analyzed different cultures across the world but have few investigations on the perception
about the body size. Information about body weight was not initially considered as an issue in
the ancient cultures, since most of the women who were plump were considered as an aspect of
good health.
According to Lacy et al. (2015), culture has greater impact on eating habits than biology
that result into increase of body weight and obesity. Cultural practices tend to be imbedded on an
individual thinking during the childhood that eventually affect later livelihood, affecting food
choice, the preparation and the amount consumed (Peeters, 2018). The current world have
allowed migration of people from one culture to another, resulting into modernization that
eventually affects the cultures hence eroding and coming up with new cultures. Modernization
facilitates the shift of economic production that have direct impact on the overall energy
expenditure of the society as it shifts from being primary based to tertiary based. The change in
energy expenditure result into accumulation of fats on the body, an explanation to the high rate
of body weight increase in modernized countries.

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 7
Studies comparing developed countries indicates that there is substantial difference in
body weight (14-16) associated with modernization and the cultural differences. For example
comparing the cultural difference between USA and France, Stevenson, Shaw, and Magliano
(2015) observes that France has low obesity rate of about 23% than Australia that stands at 37%.
It is attributed to the eating habits such as accessibility to fried foods and processed foods are
limited to few days in school unlike in the United States where all people have full accessibility
to such foods.
Sex/Gender
Sex refers to the ascribed biological status of being either a female or male while gender
refers to the social status of being a man or a woman as constructed by psych sociocultural
factors. The sexual dimorphisms exist in body weight as females tend to have more fat in the
body than males. Consequently, the psych sociocultural factors exist in different societies and
countries with respect to body weight: as fatness and thinness are attributed to females than
males.
Body image
Body image refers to the perception of others on the body size, and it has been a great
concern to many women in the world, especially during the adolescent period. The Australians
show much concern about body image during the young age just like other countries such as
United States. According to study done by Kortt, Clarke, and Brandrup (2016), Aboriginal
Australians have high probability of becoming overweight than the general population. The
study examined the relationship between age of the Aboriginal women and non-Aboriginal

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 8
women against the body image and perception from both the urban and rural context. The
indigenous Australians girls tend to have greater desire for” bigness” an aspect that is considered
as “fatness” among the non-indigenous Aboriginal and western cultures such as USA. The
qualitative study that comprised of about 47 Aboriginal both male and female found that
indigenous adults placed less concern and consequence on the change of their body image, size
and shape, thus resulting into poor body maintains methods.
Age
Age refers to the chronological time from the time of birth. in most of the postindustrial
nations and societies, body weight and obesity tends to increase as person grows and then
declines in the last years of the person’s life leading to an inverted ‘U’ or ‘J’ shaped graph of life.
The prevalence of obesity is low among the young and adult population while the highest
occurrence occur during the ages between 25-34 years. Expanding the pattern, Kortt, Clarke, and
Brandrup (2016) assert that the relationship of weight and age is biological and psychosocial. It
is observable that in most societies such as in the indigenous population, younger people of the
age between 20 to 30 tend to involved themselves with more vigorous activities such as fishing
to make a living.
Obesity in Australia by Age and Gender
This section of the literature review looks at the prevalence of obesity in Australia going
by two parameters; gender and age. It conducts a comparative analysis of existing literature and
statistics about obesity in Australia and what they report about the prevalence of obesity among
different age brackets as well as in either gender.

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 9
Obesity among Adults
Between 2014 and 2015, 1 out of 4 persons aged above 18 in Australia was reported to be
obese i.e. they had a Body Mass Index exceeding 30.0 kg/m2. According to Birch (2015), at the
time these figures represented about 5 million Australian’s who had attained the majority age;
the same study indicated the number of men who were obese was very high. The statistics
according to this study indicate that over 2 million men living in Australia at the time were
obese. These figures are representative of about 28% of the total adult male population. At the
same time, about 2.5 million Australian women were reported to be obese-the figure being
representative of 27 % of the total female population (Walls et al. 2012)
Research Strategies
According to another study conducted in 2015 as at 2015 close to 63% (approximately 2
thirds of the population of adults in Australia were obese (McLean & TeMorenga, 2015). A look
at the trends in obesity from 1995 indicates that the prevalence in adults has rapidly increased
from 57% in 1995 to the 63% recorded in 2015 (Birch, 2015). The same study indicates that the
population of adult males who were suffering from severe forms of obese doubled between 1995
and 2015, rising from a paltry 5% to 9%. Going by gender the prevalence of obesity among male
adults in 2015 was reported as 71% while in comparison, the proportion of their female
counterparts who were obese was 56%. As posited by Opie et al. (2017), at the same time, 42%
of men were overweight, bordering on obesity, while 29% of women were overweight but not
obese. The same study accounts that the comparison of adult males and females who were just
obese stood at 28% for men versus 27% for men. This study revealed a worrying trend in the

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 10
development of obesity among Australian citizens over the years from 1995 to 2015.
Considering every 2 year intervals in the period of just a decade, obesity has had a steady rate of
increase. Starting off at 57% in 1995, it grew to 61% in the period 2007-2008, and crossed into
63% in the year 2011-2012 (Opie et al. 2017).
Factors Accelerating Obesity among different age groups in Australia
In their study to evaluate the major risk factors of obesity, Menigoz, Nathan, and Turrell
(2016) denote that a large number of overweight has doubled across all age groups in the past 5
years. The study points out three major aspects as the predisposing factors of the condition.
These include the eating habits of the family, unhealthy choice of food, and lack of physical
activity. Among these age groups, Olds et al. (2010) denote that the rising number of obese
children, adolescent, and adults is a major health concern as it causes various health
complications and social problems, aspects that in the end increase the economic living stand of
both native and aboriginal Australian population (Clark & Maddison, 2010). For instance, their
peers often tease obese children, an aspect that lead to reduced self-esteem. It also requires more
effort to effectively return them to a healthy weight as it is an essential risk to both short- and
long-term health conditions of the affected.
According to Khanam (2016), the body often stores the unused energy in form of fats.
Therefore, maintaining a healthy weight requires one to put the energy into use. Eating more
than what is used forces the body to store the extra energy. For both adults and children, the
following are the primary causes of obesity include poor choice of food. High consumption of
junk foods with high sugar and fat content increases the level of fat in the body. In a systematic

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 11
study, Green and Renzaho (2014) also denote that the best way to burn calories is living a life
full of activities in the body.
Physical activity increases the metabolic processes in the body hence leading to reduction
of the body fats used as a source of energy during the physical activities (Paxton, 2016).
However, advancement in technology has resulted to more online entertainment hence leading to
less physical activities as most of the population engage themselves in indoor entertainment like
online games and movies among others. The resulting impact is that people spend more of their
time on sedentary pursuits. Rankin and Price (2017) denote that children averagely spend more
than 3 hours per day watching television, using computers, or playing online games. These
pastimes are replacing the physically active sessions not only for children but even adults who
engage in such indoor activities. Contrary to the physical activity, poor choice of food, and
unhealthy eating habits, Kendall et al. (2015) denote that obesity can also be genetic cases that
often turn to be very severe. Therefore, parents needs to me more careful and aware of the
importance of making health food choices for their families if the tendency of becoming obese in
such families seems to be genetic.
Prevalence of Obesity among Children and Adolescents
In the period between 2014 and 2015, more than one quarter of Australian children of
ages between 5 and 17 were reported to be obese or overweight.
Obesity by age and gender
From the statistics covered in this paper this far, a trend can be established as to the rate
of occurrence and increase in prevalence of obesity in males and females of different ages in

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 12
Australia. The statistics indicates 27% of children were obese or overweight (Tomkinson &
Maher, 2016). According to Demaio (2018), 20 % of children and adolescents of age bracket 5-
17 were found to be overweight but not obese. 75 of children and adolescent of a similar age
range were obese. The same study indicates that during the time (2014-2015), the number of
boys and girls who were obese or overweight were almost at par; boys at 28% and girls at 27%.
Of the children that were recorded as being obese, 7% were boys while 8% were girls.
Figure 1: Below is a figure showing the differences in prevalence of obesity among children by
age bracket. Table adapted from Demaio et al. (2018)
Between the years 2011 and 2012 the incidences of overweight and obesity for males
above the age of 18 was significantly more that the incidence in females. These were the cases
for all age groups except for those individuals between ages of 18 to 24 and those above 75

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 13
years. The following table summarizes the differences in prevalence of obesity by age and
gender as at 2015. Table adapted from Opie et al. (2017).
Figure 2: Differences in prevalence of obesity by age and gender as at 2015
Trends in prevalence of obesity in children (ages 5-17) between 1995 and 2015

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 14
According to statistics that can be accessed from this study, the prevalence of obesity
among children has been on a steady incline just like it has been seen in adults. In 1995, the
percentage of children (i.e. of age bracket 5-17) with obesity was 21%. As submitted by Lacy et
al. (2015), between the years 2007-2008, the figures rose to 25%. From that moment the
prevalence of obesity among children and young adolescents has been stable averaging 26% in
2011/2012. A slight increase was however recorded between the years 2014-2015 where the
prevalence rose to 27%.
Figure 3: A graph that summarizes the trends in prevalence of obesity between 1995 and 2015
(Table adapted from Demaio et al., 2018)
Prevalence of Obesity by Cohort of birth
A part from just the age, the study also established a pattern in the trends of obesity as
observed among cohorts. The word cohort in this context is used to mean a group of children
who are born at about the same time. According to Nghiem & Khanam, (2016), this trend was

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 15
arrived at based on the BMIs of the children as recorded in different years. It shows that between
the ages of 10-13 and 14-17 young adolescents were at greater risk of developing obesity in
2014-2015; the risk being far much higher than it was among their cohorts 20 years ago (Shaw,
2016). For children with obesity, the risk of developing obesity during age bracket 2-4 in 2014-
2015 was twice as likely to develop obesity as their counterparts that were born in 1995 (Gibson
et al. 2016).
Research Gaps
From the above literature, it is clear that not little focus has been given to the effects on
obesity in specific age brackets in Australia. For instance, it is only reported that low level of
obesity is experienced across the world in different life stages, especially among the male as
compared to the female counterparts. Studies further report that girls tend to be more concerned
with their body image, hence adopt different mechanism in shaping the body weight and image
by slimming while boy tend to participate in physical, activity such as attending gym to have
physical fitness (Benito et al., 2012). However, little explanations are given to these variables, an
aspect that remains a gap for more research. Generally, age and life stages are closely associated
with body weight and obesity with younger people and old people pierced as thinner and less
likely to become obese.

OBESITY IN MALES AND FEMALES AT DIFFERENT AGE BRACKETS 16
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