Occupational Hazards and Control Measures

This assignment delves into the realm of occupational health and safety, examining prevalent hazards in various work environments. It covers topics such as noise pollution, crystalline silica exposure, and vibration risks. The focus is on understanding the potential dangers associated with these hazards and exploring effective control measures to mitigate their impact on worker well-being.

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UNIT
CODE HST2256 TITLE OCCUPATIONAL
HYGIENE
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Topic of assignment
Occupational Hygiene in Sand Casting Foundry
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Occupational Hygiene in Sand Casting
Foundry
Student’s Name
University Affiliation
Occupational Hygiene
Lecturer
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Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1
Part One: Table listing occupational hygiene hazards...................................................................1
Part Two: Properties, toxicology and health effects of the hygiene hazards.................................1
Silica dust hazard........................................................................................................................1
Properties............................................................................................................................... 1
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................2
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 2
Carbon Monoxide (CO) hazard...................................................................................................2
Properties............................................................................................................................... 2
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................2
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 3
Noise hazard.............................................................................................................................. 3
Properties............................................................................................................................... 3
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................3
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 3
Vibration hazard.........................................................................................................................4
Properties............................................................................................................................... 4
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................4
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 4
Formaldehyde hazard................................................................................................................ 4
Properties............................................................................................................................... 4
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................5
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 5
Heat hazard................................................................................................................................5
Properties............................................................................................................................... 5
Toxicology...............................................................................................................................6
Health effects......................................................................................................................... 6
Sampling methods and Exposure Standards..................................................................................6
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Silica dust................................................................................................................................... 6
Sampling methods..................................................................................................................6
Exposure standards................................................................................................................ 6
Carbon monoxide.......................................................................................................................7
Sampling methods..................................................................................................................7
Exposure standards................................................................................................................ 7
Noise.......................................................................................................................................... 7
Sampling method................................................................................................................... 7
Exposure standards................................................................................................................ 8
Vibration.................................................................................................................................... 8
Sampling method................................................................................................................... 8
Exposure standard..................................................................................................................8
Formaldehyde............................................................................................................................ 9
Sampling method................................................................................................................... 9
Exposure standard..................................................................................................................9
Heat............................................................................................................................................ 9
Sampling method................................................................................................................... 9
Exposure standard................................................................................................................10
References................................................................................................................................... 11
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Occupational Hygiene in Sand Casting Foundry
Introduction
This scholarly paper will explore the occupational hazards in sand casting foundry. The
first part will present a table of the occupational hygiene hazards in this industry.
Specifically, the table will include the hygiene hazards, state of matter, route of entry
and duration of exposure. Besides, the paper will elucidate the properties, toxicology
and health impacts of the identified hygiene hazards. The last part will examine the
sampling methods and exposure standards of the hygiene hazards.
Part One: Table listing occupational hygiene hazards
Hygiene hazard State of matter Route of entry Duration of
exposure
Silica dust (Physical) Dust particles Inhalation intermittent
Carbon monoxide
(Chemical)
Gas Inhalation Intermittent
Noise (Physical) Physical hazard Ears Continuous
Vibration (Physical) N/A Skin Intermittent
Formaldehyde
(Chemical)
Gas Dermal, ingestion,
inhalation
Continuous
Heat (Physical) N/A Dermal Continuous
Part Two: Properties, toxicology and health effects of the hygiene
hazards
Silica dust hazard
Properties
Silica occurs in various crystalline forms as well as in amorphous non-crystalline forms.
Silica dust is classified under amorphous silica. This form of silica does not result in the
development of pneumoconioses. Quartz is the most common kind of crystalline silica
while cristobalite is less common. In Sand Casting Foundry silica dust emerges from
quartz in the sand (Rice, 2000). The amount of free silica in the atmosphere depends on
the handling process, the effectiveness of dust control mechanisms and chemical
structure of the sand. Another factor that impacts the amount of free silica is the state
of matter of the sand, wet or dry.
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Toxicology
The toxicity of silica depends on the size, level of exposure and cell type dependent.
Silica dust can be thought as amorphous silica nanoparticles due to its small size. The
toxicology of Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) varies depending on the route. Thermal route-
based SiNPs portrays different biological impacts from wet route-based SiNPs. However,
crystalline silica and amorphous SiNPs induce toxicity in a similar mechanism. Crystalline
silica of 0.5-10 μm is capable of causing harm. Likewise, SiNPs of 1-100 nm has been
found to induce toxic effects both in vitro and in vivo (Murugadoss, et al., 2017).
Health effects
Exposure to silica dust causes several diseases and is also a risk factor for other
disorders. The primary disease that occurs due the inhalation of crystalline silica is
silicosis (Poinen-Rughooputh, Rughooputh, Guo, Rong, & Chen, 2016). Silicosis manifests
through a diffuse, nodular, interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Most people who experience
silicosis face difficulties in breathing, respiratory failure and chest pain. In some
instances, silicosis might result in death. Workers and communities living close to a sand
casting foundry plant might develop airway illnesses like Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD) (Rushton, 2007). COPD is characterized by airflow obstruction,
breathlessness and phlegm.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) hazard
Properties
CO is a dangerous, odourless, colourless gas and is an oxide of carbon. CO arises from
incomplete combustion of carbon compounds. The gas comprises of a single carbon
atom, which is bonded to a single oxygen atom through a covalent bond. CO is slightly
soluble in water but can dissolve in inorganic substances such as ethanol. The melting
and boiling points of CO are -199 degrees Celsius and -91.5 respectively. It is flammable
and burns in air to form the other oxide of carbon which is carbon dioxide (Penney,
Benignus, Kephalopoulos, Kotzias, Kleinman, & Verrier, 2010).
Toxicology
CO is a poisonous gas that results in toxicity of the heart as well as central nervous
system (CNS). It has a higher diffusion coefficient than oxygen. The body can easily get
rid of CO because it has a high diffusion coefficient. However, CO might bind to
haemoglobin, a molecule which carries oxygen. Upon binding to haemoglobin,
carboxyhemoglobin is formed. The formation of carboxyhemoglobin inhibits the
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transportation of oxygen to all the body parts (Penney, Benignus, Kephalopoulos,
Kotzias, Kleinman, & Verrier, 2010).
Health effects
The immediate health effects of CO are nausea, dizziness and headache (Penney,
Benignus, Kephalopoulos, Kotzias, Kleinman, & Verrier, 2010). Exposure to high amounts
of CO can lead to suffocation and eventually death. Most people who are exposed to
continuous CO become unconscious. Heart disease tends to develop due to moderate
exposure to CO. In case a person survives severe CO poisoning, they may develop
chronic health problems.
Noise hazard
Properties
Noise originates from a sound. In fact, noise is undesired sound. The sound is classified
as noise depending on the listener, event and circumstance. For instance, loud music
might be pleasurable to one person and unwanted sound to another. However, the loud
music might be hazardous to an individual’s hearing if they are exposed for many hours
and often. The attributes of noise that are used in the jobsites are frequency, sound
power, sound pressure and time distribution (CCOHS, 2017).
Toxicology
A person hears and interprets sound based on the pitch and frequency. This aspect
insinuates that people hear frequencies in different ways. People hear high-frequency
noise better compared to low-frequency noise. Thus, noise calibrations may be modified
to correspond to the peculiarity of human hearing (CCOHS, 2017). In Australia, noise is
measured based on the model WHS Regulations. Two measures of noise have been
established, LAeq,8h of 85dB(A) and LC, peak of 140 bB(C). LAeq,8h of 85dB(A) indicates
that an employee who works for eight hours should not be exposed to noise above 85
decibels. LC,peak of 140 bB(C) indicates an employee should not be exposed to noise
exceeding 140 decibels (Safe Work Australia, Noise, 2017a).
Health effects
The main health effect of noise hazard is deafness. Deafness occurs due to long-term
exposure to noise mainly for employees who work inside the facility. When a person is
exposed to excess noise, the tiny hair-like cells found in the inner-ear are stimulated.
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The stimulation conveys a message to the brain. These hair cells are susceptible to
damage when noise exceeds the standard limit. When a person loses hearing ability due
to noise, they cannot recover (Safe Work Australia, Noise, 2017a).
Vibration hazard
Properties
Vibration hazard occurs due to oscillating movement. In the workplaces, workers can
experience hand-arm vibration (HAV) and whole-body vibration (WBV). HAV is mainly
caused by the use of equipment that transmits vibration into the arms and hands. This
kind of vibration occurs mainly due to handheld equipment. When vibration is
transmitted through the feet or seat, then WBV can occur. In most cases, travelling
using mobile machinery through rough surfaces can result in WVB. It is evident that the
attributes of vibration mainly depend on the route of exposure (HaSPA, 2012).
Toxicology
Vibration comprises of oscillatory movement of molecules within their equilibrium in a
solid matter, gas or liquid. The movements occur in the region of <20Hz. The daily
exposure limit value (ELV) of HAV is 5m/s2 A(8). On the other hand, daily exposure limit
value (ELV) of WBV is 1.15 m/s2 A(8). The weekly exposure to vibration should be
calculated based on the number of working hours which might be five or eight (NERC,
2011).
Health effects
Continuous or intermitted exposure to vibration is associated with different health
effects. Some of the health effects of vibration are neurological disorders,
musculoskeletal disorders and carpal tunnel syndrome (Safe Work Australia, 2017b).
WBV damages the lower spine region. WBV may also cause damage to the internal body
organs. Continuous exposure to vibration can cause damage as well as structural
changes to the nervous system and peripheral blood supply.
Formaldehyde hazard
Properties
Formaldehyde is a colourless gas with a strong odour. This flammable gas is always
described as having a pungent odour. Formaldehyde is dissolved in water to make a
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solution referred to as “formalin.” Industrial works which involve chemical and
biological processes might produce formaldehyde (OHS Reps, 2015). In sand casting
foundry, formaldehyde is produced alongside other gasses and vapours. Hence, the
concentration of formaldehyde in this workplace setting might be low, but sufficient to
cause health effects.
Toxicology
Formaldehyde might not result in significant toxicity if it is produced in low
concentrations. National occupational exposure standard is 1ppm (1 part per million).
Workers can be exposed to formaldehyde level of 1ppm for an extended period without
negative health effects. The short-term exposure limit (STEL) to formaldehyde is 2ppm
(OHS Reps, 2015). There are however suggests to lower the exposure limit to
formaldehyde in Australia. For instance, NICNAS suggest that the exposure limit should
be lowered to 0.3ppm for workers who work for 8 hours. The organization suggests that
the short-term exposure should be lowered to 0.6ppm.
Health effects
Formaldehyde is carcinogenic to humans and can cause nasal cancers. It increases the
risk of leukaemia and other forms of cancers. The U.S. National Academies of Science
links formaldehyde to myeloid leukaemia, sinonasal cancer and nasopharyngeal cancer.
Another health effect is the sensory irritant. Inhalation of formaldehyde can irritate
nerves in various body parts such as the eyes and nose. Upon contact with the skin,
formaldehyde causes skin irritation (OHS Reps, 2015).
Heat hazard
Properties
Heat becomes a hazard when the human body is incapable to control its internal
temperature. The body’s internal mechanism controls temperature effectively through
homeostasis. The factors that result in health stress are work rate, type of clothing in
the workplace and humidity (HSE, n. d.). Only the employees who are in the workplace
will experience the heat stress because they are directly affected by the work factors.
Thus, a person passing near the workplace will not experience the heat stress. The
workplace setting might expose employees to heat stress all year round, and the
condition might worsen during hot summer months.
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Toxicology
Workers are exposed to heat stress in the workplace in different ways and levels.
Handling strenuous work in hot conditions is the primary cause of heat stress. Sweat
evaporation depends on the kind of clothing and workplace setting. As more heat is
produced in the body, inadequate heat is lost leading to dehydration (HSE, n. d.). The
heat might increase to a level where it causes strain on the body. It is evident that if the
body is gaining more heat than what is lost to the environment, the body’s control
mechanism will eventually fail.
Health effects
Heat causes various health effects that might differ based on the susceptibility of the
person. Employees might be unable to concentrate in the workplace when exposed to
high heat. Muscle cramps and heat rash tend to occur due to continuous exposure to
heat. Severe thirst and fainting are also symptoms of heat stress. Other effects are heat
stroke and heat exhaustion (HSE, n. d.).
Sampling methods and Exposure Standards
Silica dust
Sampling methods
Silica dust is sampled according to the inhalation rate by sampling the airborne
concentration. The method used to measure silica is AS 2984 (2004). This method of
sampling crystalline silica adheres to ISO 7708:1995 standards. AS 2984 (2004) measures
the portion of silica dust that is trapped to the unciliated airways. X-ray diffraction, as
well as infrared spectroscopy, is used in Australia to analyse samples of silica dust. A
sampling period of eight hours provides a respirable crystalline silica concentration of
about 0.05 mg/m3. On the other hand, a sampling period of four hours does not provide
the required standard. According to AIOH, the sampling of silica dust should proceed for
eight or twelve hours (AIOH, 2009).
Exposure standards
The exposure standards of silica dust are instituted by the Australian Safety and
Compensation Council (ASCC). Australian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC)
indicate that the exposure to silica crystal standard should be 0.1 mg/m3. The NSW Coal
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Mining Regulation of 2006, however, created an exception for this exposure standard.
The exposure standard for respirable quartz was set at 0.12 mg/m3. However, open coal
mining sites are still required to comply with the o.1 mg/m3 standard. AIOH has also
supported this standard (AIOH, 2009). Some workplaces in Australia do not comply with
the exposure standards due to lack of awareness or resources. Other companies have
not documented their compliance with silica exposure standards.
Carbon monoxide
Sampling methods
The primary methods of sampling CO are GC using flame ionization detection (FID) non-
dispersive infrared (NDIR) spectroscopy. NDIR is an automatic method that measures CO
continuously. When using NDIR, a specific amount of air is pumped into selected cells.
The absorption is then sampled at a CO vibration band at 4.7 μm. Some NDIR
spectrometers feature gas filter correlation (GFC) to reduce interference from other
gases. GC method uses alumina or silica gel and analytical column to analyse CO. Both
GC/FID and NDIR techniques are traditional methods for sampling CO, but they are
widely used for commercial purposes in Australia. The most recent sampling techniques
are Cavity Ring Down Spectroscopy (CRDS) and Fourier Transformation Infrared (FTIR)
(Zellweger, et al., 2016).
Exposure standards
Safe Word Australia has developed the exposure standards for carbon monoxide. The
standards have been elaborated based on the Work Safety Code of Practice 2010. For
workers, the exposure limit for 8 hours should be 30 ppm (Gallagher, 2010). Some
workplaces have a risk of exposing employees to a higher level of CO than the standard
limit. Safe Work Australia has established guidelines for such cases. Exposure of 200
ppm is 15 minutes, 100 is 30 minutes while 60 ppm is 60 minutes. Any short term
exposure must not exceed 400 ppm (Energy Safe Victoria, 2014). This aspect insinuates
that a plant can establish its standards based on the level of exposure.
Noise
Sampling method
Noise can be sampled using two tools which are the sound level meter (SLM) and
Personal Sound Exposure Meter (PSEM). When using SLM, a noise assessor measures
sound pressure. The measurements are short-term LAeq,T (constant A-weighted sound
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pressure level). The most critical factors that are considered when using SLM are noise
structure, characteristics, frequency variation and typical situations. PSEM is meant for
workers who want to measure the exposure to noise while in work. The PSEMs gadgets
are worn by workers during their entire shift. With PSEM, workers can measure the
exposure to noise for different tasks and areas where they work (Warrington &
McLoughlin, 2005). The variations in noise levels for different tasks can then be
determined and analyzed.
Exposure standards
In Australia, the exposure standard for noise is determined by the [NOHSC: 2009(2004)].
The exposure standard for noise is 85 dB[A] for eight hours. This standard is however set
for those who are exposed to continuous noise. The maximum standard noise exposure
is 140 dB[C] (Worksafe Victoria, 2005). The Safe Work Australia advises employers to
work with their employees to develop noise control policy for the workplace. They
should also collaborate to establish an implementation plan for the noise control policy.
An effective noise control program should have an objective of reducing the generation
and emission of noise in the workplace (NOHSC, 2004). The management should also
develop a program to review and update the noise control policy.
Vibration
Sampling method
Vibration is measured using different instruments. The most common instruments are
geophone or accelerometer (transducers), signal-conditioning tool, data recording tool
and analysis system. The equipment that is used for measuring vibration meet the
standards established in BS 7482 and BS 6841 parts 1 and 3. A 40 dB is the range needed
for sampling vibration, but 50 dB range is desirable. When measuring vibration, the
signal-to-noise ratio must not exceed 5 dB. The Australian Standard AS 2775-2004
Mechanical vibration and shock standard should be considered when mounting a
vibration transducer to vibrating surfaces or equipment (EPA, 2006).
Exposure standard
The exposure standard for vibration hazard depends on the time and task that a person
is handling. The exposure standards that have been established in BS 6841-1987 are for
z-axis, and x-, y-axis. Exposure to minimum levels of vibration has a low risk of causing
harm. On the other hand, exposure to very high levels of vibration can result in adverse
outcomes. The minimum exposure to vibration in workshops is 0.04 m/s2 for z-axis and
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0.029 m/s2 for x- and y-axis. The maximum exposure is 0.080 m/s2 for z-axis and 0.058
m/s2 for x-and y-axis (EPA, 2006).
Formaldehyde
Sampling method
Various methods have been developed for sampling formaldehyde in commercial and
non-commercial settings. The widely applied methods for detecting formaldehyde in air
samples are based on spectrophotometry. On the other hand, aqueous samples of
formaldehyde are sampled using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
There are several other methods of sampling formaldehyde including gas
chromatography (GC) and fluorimetry (Dar, Shafique, Anwar, Zaman, & Naseer, 2013).
Even though these techniques are very effective, they are costly. In Australia, the
National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) advise
industries to develop alternative formaldehyde detection methods. As a result, less
expensive and effective methods have been developed across industries in Australia.
Exposure standard
NICNAS has developed exposure standards of formaldehyde. NICNAS is the authoritative
body that samples, analysis and establishes guidelines for exposure to hazardous
chemicals. Most workplaces expose employees to 0.2 ppm of formaldehyde, which is
less likely to cause nasal cancers. NICNAS surveyed the exposure standards and
published several recommendations. According to NICNAS, the exposure standard of
formaldehyde should be set at 0.3 ppm TWA. The body further recommends the Short-
time Exposure limit to be set at 0.6 ppm (Access Canberra, n. d.). The Safe Work
Australia also plays a fundamental role in establishing the exposure standards for
formaldehyde.
Heat
Sampling method
The occupational safety standards in Australia have not established methods of
sampling heat in the workplace. Employees in Australia experience extreme
temperatures in the workplace. As such, employers have legal obligation to create a
comfortable environment for their employees (Federal Register of Legislation, 2011).
Businesses achieve their obligations by conducting risk management. Risk management
programs are developed in consultation with the employees. Identifying the sources of
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heat in the workplace is the first step in risk management. After identifying the sources
of heat, the management should establish a heat control policy as well as an
implementation plan.
Exposure standard
There are no heat exposure standards in Australia because there are different
temperatures during summer and winter. During winter most employees work
comfortably when temperatures are between 20 and 24 degrees Celsius. In summer,
workers can work comfortably when temperatures are between 23 and 26 degrees
Celsius (WorkSafe Queensland, 2014). Sedentary employees can work comfortably at 20
to 26 degrees Celsius. The productivity of the employees can drop by up to 20 percent
when the temperatures are uncomfortable. Uncomfortable temperatures can be
described as too high or too low temperature. Apart from company specific
temperature control policy, some states have state-based temperature control policies.
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References
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G9RRGo3QVYzbG90S2lOODJ3X1Z0Q1B1QXI0cERFTDZTSEozWmxqbE1rY0QyMGJ
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Murugadoss, S., Lison, D., Godderis, L., Brule, S. V., Mast, J., Brassinne, F., et al. (2017).
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Exposure – Advantages and Disadvantages of Noise Dosimetry versus Sampling
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