Understanding Psychology and Behavior

This assignment delves into the multifaceted world of psychology. It explores concepts such as intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) in relation to cognitive control processes. It examines the Kubler-Ross five stage model of grief and change management theories like Lewin's model. The assignment also touches upon organizational culture, personality traits, and factors influencing workplace climate.

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Occupational psychology
Author’s name
Course
Name of the professor
Name of the institution
Location of the institution
Date
Task one

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Theoretical approaches
There are three main theoretical approaches that explain human behavior. First, the
behavioral approach which states that behavior can be learned through stimulus and
response and is a result of one’s interactions with the environment. According to
behaviorists, people are born with a blank state hence everything is learned (Watson, 2013).
Behavioral approach is further divided into three types. The first is methodological which
states that behavior is learned through observations. The second is radical which
acknowledges that there are internal mental forces that determine behavior and recognizes
the existence of innate behavior. The third is classical which defines psychology as a natural
science that is used to explain behavior through observations (McLeod,2017). Cognitive
approach is the second behavioral approach. It defines behavior as the result of people’s
thinking process (Cognitive behavior modification, 1975). It can be applied in cognitive
therapy. The last is humanist approach which defines behavior in terms of a person’s ability
to change their lives through self-actualization (Gange, 1961). It does not support the use of
scientific methods to define human behavior since all human beings are unique.
A scientific approach
The scientific approach is a standardized way of conducting research used in data
collection, analysis, and interpretation. There are several scientific methods used in this
approach. First, there is theory which entails ideas that explain a phenomenon and has been
verified using a number of experiments (Morrison and Lastrucci, 1964). Contrary, hypothesis
defines a proposition that explains a phenomenon which is viewed as a starting point for
further research. The third is participant observation where the researcher engages in
activities and records the findings. The fourth is role play where a researcher acts in a way
that fits a certain role. Simulation involves the use of a model that represents real world
systems to perform experiments. The scientific approaches have made significant
contributions to occupational psychology. To start with, theories such as behavioral,
cognitive and humanistic are used to explain workplace behavior which has improved
performance of the employees. For example, job counselling which is featured in humanistic
approach steers employees in the right career paths with clear goals that are in alignment
with the objectives of the organization. Lastly, the various scientific methods have been
used to conduct research on behavioral practices in the workplace.
Quantitative and qualitative approaches
Qualitative approaches result in non-numerical data and are used to explain people’s
beliefs, behavior, attitudes, and experiences. Examples of qualitative approaches include
behaviorists and humanistic theories (McLeod, 2008). The advantage of using the qualitative
approach in humanistic theory is that the research allows the respondents to express their
views freely without the imposition of the researcher’s views, especially in unstructured
questions. Participant observation also allows the researcher to fully understand people’s
views by taking part in their activities. The limitations are that the research may be lengthy
due to the analysis of individual results. It is also difficult to ascertain validity and reliability
since data is subjective. On the other hand, quantitative approaches result in numerical data
such as cognitive approach (McLeod, 2008). The strengths of quantitative approaches are
that they are based on statistical analysis which makes them scientific and rational. One
limitation of the quantitative approach is that the respondents are not free to explain
themselves. Another one is that it requires heavy reliance on statistical analysis.
Task two
The types of individual differences

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Intelligence quotient (IQ) is the measure of a person’s intelligence which is their
mental age divided by their age multiplied by a hundred. Intelligence can be defined as the
ability to do something (Checa and Fernández-Berrocal, 2015). It can be expressed in many
ways such as being good in sports and getting good grades. Intelligence tests can be
individual or group. On the other hand, aptitude is the capability of an individual to perform
a certain task. Aptitude tests indicate whether someone can be successful in doing
something after training. Some tests that are used are Differential Aptitude Tests. Another is
Emotional quotient(EQ) which is the ability to recognize and use emotional acumen to attain
something. It defines the ability to understand other people’s emotions and be able to work
with them (Checa and Fernández-Berrocal, 2015). An example is the Daniel Goleman
emotional intelligence test. Personality is that behavior of a person that remains constant
over a period of time (Personality and individual differences, 1997). There are three ways of
assessing personality. The first is self-report measures where an individual is asked about
himself or herself through a questionnaire. An example is the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire. The second is indirect measures that refer to questions that are unstructured
hence individuals show their unconscious feelings. An example is the Rorschach Ink Blot
Test. The third is the observation measures where an individual is observed in a certain
situation. An example is the Situational Stress Test. The last is memory, where individuals’
ability to retain information is tested. This has led to working memory which refers to short
term memory (McLeod, 2008). Working memory is used in activities such as reading and
reasoning.
Usefulness of psychometric instruments
Psychometric tests refer to tests that measure differences between individuals
based on factors such as ability, intelligence, and attitude. For example, Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator and the Factor Five Model (Psychometric tests, 2002). A reliable Psychometric
instrument is one that shows consistency when done during different time periods. For
instance, if one takes the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator today the results should be the same
if the test is taken two weeks later. There are different types of reliability. Inter-rater
reliability measures the degree that raters give consistent results for the same feature. Test
retest reliability measures the degree of consistency between results from the same
instrument on the same feature but on different periods. Finally, internal consistency refers
to the consistency of results of items measured by an instrument. A valid psychometric
instrument measures the degree that the instrument measures what is intended. For
example, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator should measure a person’s personality type and
predict what that person would do in different situations based on the personality. There are
types of validity such as face, content, criteria, and construct (Psychometric tests, 2002).
Face validity measures the degree that a test appears effective when compared to its aims.
Content validity measures the extent that a test measures all aspects of a feature. The
criterion validity refers to the degree that an instrument measure relates to the results.
Lastly, construct validity measures the degree that an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure (Socialresearchmethods, n.d.).
Measures of individual differences
Business decisions are courses of actions that result when choices are made.
Aptitude tests can be used to make business decisions. As mentioned earlier, aptitude tests
measure the ability to perform tasks. When carried out by an organization during the
recruitment process, it can determine which potential employee is a good fit for the
company. Another example is during promotions, where an aptitude test can determine if an
individual is can take on more responsibility. Overall, organizations make the best decisions
when it comes to the employees that fit their needs. The other difference is personality.
Personality tests can also be administered during interview processes. For example, sales
representatives are mostly extroverts since the job requires them approach new clients and
form relationships.

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Task three
Human reactions to change
John Fisher’s theory describes how people respond to change. It has eight stages.
The first stage is anxiety which is one of the reasons for resistance to change. The second
stage is happiness where the individual is relieved that finally change is going to take place.
The third stage is fear which is another reason why people resist change. The threat is the
fourth stage where individuals become aware of the need to change their behaviors and
learn new ways. In the fifth stage, people experience guilt after evaluating themselves and
learning that they may have failed to meet expectations in the past. In the sixth stage, they
suffer from depression due to lack of motivation. Disillusionment follows where they feel
their values and beliefs do not align with the organization. Afterward, hostility occurs when
individuals continue with the old processes that had failed. Finally, there is denial where the
new processes are ignored.
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’s developed a model that described the five stages of grief
which is also used to demonstrate the second theory of change. The first stage is denial
where one does not want to believe that change will occur. The second stage is anger where
one is angry upon realizing that the change is inevitable and it will affect them. The third
stage is bargaining where one tries to find a way to avoid or delay the change. The fourth
stage is depression which occurs when one learns that they have to deal with the change.
Finally, there is acceptance where one realizes that they cannot avoid the change (Connelly,
2016). The last theory is by Kurt Lewin, which states that change occurs in three phases.
The first phase is the unfreeze. This involves finding a way to move from the old ways that
are not working (Mindtools, n.d.). In turn, people are motivated to change and begin to
participate in the change process. The second phase is changing where individuals change
their thoughts and behaviors. The third phase is refreezing where the new changes are
enforced and become habits. This ensures people do not go back to the old ways of doing
things.
Recommendations for implementing change in a selected organization
Change is the act of transitioning into new ways of doing things. In this case, Digital
Sapiens a digital marketing agency which has a branch in Dubai wants to implement change
for expansion (Digitalmediasapien, n.d). Due to its, recent success over the years, the
company wants to expand its services to the African region and have an office in Nairobi,
Kenya. This change is required so as to increase its market share. The change process is
supposed to be done based on Kurt Lewin’s theory. During the first stage, the team
responsible for managing the change will create a presentation that demonstrates the
benefits of expanding to the African region which include more customers, higher returns
and more opportunities to show case their skills. The team should also determine which
factors will be affected by the expansion. Lastly, they need to take care of the concerns that
may arise. During the change phase, the team needs to involve everyone in the process and
resolve disputes that arise. In the final stage, the team should identify barriers to the change
and reward systems to sustain the new habits developed in the change process.
Achieving attitude change
For attitude change to occur within Digital Sapiens, there must be several practices
to be followed. First, there must be clear communication between top managers and
employees. Second, all employees should be involved in the change process. This can be
through listening to suggestions and tasking some with the responsibility of running the new
branch. In turn, the morale of the employees’ is improved. To sustain the change, the
company can plan annual events where some members can come together, share ideas and

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have fun. This will create new relationships and strengthen the existing ones. Ultimately, in
Digital Sapiens for the change to take place the senior management needs to be on board.
Task four
Culture’s influence on performance in a selected organization
Culture is the term that encompasses the values and beliefs that determine behavior
and decision making. Organizational culture describes the practices and norms that are
unique to a certain organization and influence behavior. In DHL, a global logistics company
there is a culture of offering career training opportunities and employees have embraced
this practice to become experts in various fields (Srivastava, 2017). The culture at ascending
levels refers to how organizations offer promotion opportunities to the existing employees.
For example, DHL company offers promotion opportunities for employees who which to
move higher in ranks. Sub-cultures occur when a group of people in an organization have
values that are different from the dominant group. Professional cultures refer to the cultures
developed by professionals such as accountants within an organization. Industry culture
refers to the businesses that are in the creative arts industry. National culture entails those
practices in a nation that multinational corporations must adhere to. for instance, the
multinational corporations that operate in Dubai must adhere to the Islamic law.
The climate for a selected work group
Climate describes the repetitive values, beliefs, and behavior that define everyday
life in an organization. One of the models of culture is Schein’s three levels where there are
three levels of organizational culture (Mulder, 2014). The first level is artefacts and symbols
which includes the company’s logo, clothes and other things that are visible to the company
and outside parties. The second level is espoused values which refers to the values of the
company. The third level is basic underlying assumptions that are unconscious behaviors in
the company. Management practices that impact climate include clarity in communication
on performance goals. The other practice is commitment where employees are motivated to
meet their goals. Another is standards which create targets that employees must meet.
Then, employees should be responsible so that resources are fully utilized. Lastly, managers
should recognize good performance through rewards and encourage collaboration through
team work (Walsh, 2012). A healthy climate includes safety programs, policies that
encourage healthy behavior, fitness options, and good food. However, the climate at
Emirates Airline, a flight company in Dubai, is unhealthy and the impact of climate on
efficiency is negative due to low career advancement opportunities and long working hours.
Improving performance
In order to improve the performance of employees at Emirates, the company should
offer training and development programs for employees. Therefore, they can be able to
motivate employees and improve job performance. The organization can also include
motivation techniques to urge their employees to perform better such as reward systems
when they reach certain level of performance. The company can also use the management
strategies aforementioned to improve performance in a selected work group. For example,
new hires can be given performance targets that they must meet to gain rewards. The
targets must be realistic and communicated clearly to all staff members. Another example,

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is the use of teams to carry out projects to encourage collaborative work in the organization.
This fosters healthy relationships that create a good working environment.
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