Dopamine and Delusions in Schizophrenia

The provided content includes a range of articles, studies, and texts related to schizophrenia, its symptoms, treatment options, and underlying neurobiological mechanisms. The delusion of grandeur is discussed as one of the symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia. The role of dopamine, glutamate, and other neurotransmitters in the development and treatment of schizophrenia is explored through various research studies. Additionally, the content includes information on cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy for treating schizophrenia.

Running head: PARANOID SCHIZOPHRENIA 1
PARANOID SCHIZOPHRENIA (F20.0)
Name
Institution

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Paranoid Schizophrenia
Description
It is the most common sub-type of schizophrenia whose defining characteristics are auditory
hallucinations accompanied with thoughts and beliefs laden with delusions. As per the ICD-
10 classification, it is a chronic form of schizophrenia characterised by “relatively stable,
often paranoid delusions, usually accompanied by hallucinations, particularly of the auditory
variety, and perceptual disturbances. Disturbances of affect, volition, and speech, and
catatonic symptoms are either absent or relatively inconspicuous” (World Health
Organization (WHO), 2015). According to the definition, the key characteristics that define
this form of schizophrenia include perceptual disturbances, hallucination, particularly of
auditory nature and delusions (persecutory or grandiose). These characteristics have a
significant negative effect on an individual’s quality of life as they affect their functioning.
Regardless, compared to other forms of schizophrenia, those presenting with paranoid
schizophrenia are able to function better in daily life as they have fewer problems with
memory, emotional apathy and concentration (Torgersen, 2012). Paranoid schizophrenia is a
lifelong condition but still, an individual can attain a high quality of life with proper
treatment. The form of treatment and response to the treatment often varies from patient to
patient and it depends on an individual’s clinical picture. It is thus advisable to look at how
severe the symptoms are when considering treatment modalities.
Signs and Symptoms
Common symptoms characterising paranoid schizophrenia include severe anxiety and
agitation, unexplained anger, argumentative habits, emotional disconnect, frequent suicidal

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thoughts and behaviours, auditory disturbances, delusions and violent tendencies and
behaviours (Sadock, Sadock, & Ruiz, 2017). While most of these signs and symptoms are
present in persons presenting with other forms of schizophrenia, there are two symptoms (i.e.
paranoid delusions and auditory hallucinations) which set paranoid schizophrenia apart from
other subtypes of schizophrenia (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016).
Paranoid delusions: Persons suffering from paranoid schizophrenia often feel that other
people are conspiring against them. A delusion is a strong perception that something is in a
certain way but in reality, the evidence says otherwise. Delusions in paranoid schizophrenia
often lead to abnormal behaviours in the patient. This is often as a result of intensifying of the
paranoid thoughts which makes one behave in an aggressive manner or commit violence
under the guise of self-defence against those persons in the delusions of the patient who
wants to cause him/her or their loved ones some form of harm. These delusions also tend to
make patients believe that they possess some supernatural abilities, or they are famous
persons (delusions of grandeur) (Grohol, 2016). Even though people may present contrary
evidence, the patient often holds onto the beliefs.
Auditory hallucinations: This symptom involves a person hearing voices or sounds which in
reality are not present (Puri & Treasaden, 2013). One may hear multiple voices which may be
talking to him/her or voices which may be conversing to one another. Such hallucinations
often influence patients to behave in a particular manner as they sometimes criticise, poke or
make fun of the patient’s real or perceived flaws, or may persuade the patient to hurt
themselves or another person (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2013).
Even though the voices are not real, to the patient, they are.
The chances of successful treatment are improved with early diagnosis.

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Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of paranoid schizophrenia (and schizophrenia as a whole) is widely
debated. The most common and respected hypothesis of the pathophysiology is that of the
condition resulting as a result of disruptions in the functioning of the neurotransmitters
dopamine and glutamate and abnormal neurological structures (Elert, 2014). Evidence from
studies suggests that schizophrenia is a disorder resulting from abnormal dopamine signalling
(Howes & Nour, 2016).
Dopamine synthesis and release capacity are increased in persons with the condition,
specifically in the midbrain origin of the neurons and the striatum (Howes, et al., 2012;
Howes, et al., 2013). Despite the hypothesis of dopamine dysregulation being the most
common, it still remains clear how it contributes to the symptoms of the condition. Some
studies claim that there is the disruption of the auditory thalamocortical projections and this
causes hallucinations, whereas the delusions are likely to be as a result of dysregulated
corticostriatal circuitry and reward circuitry in the form of aberrant salience (Chun, et al.,
2014).
The other hypothesis focuses on the neurotransmitter glutamate. Post-mortem of brains of
persons previously diagnosed with the condition has shown diminished levels of glutamate
receptors (Rubio, Drummond, & Meador-Woodruff, 2012). Evidence links reduced glutamate
function to poor performance on tasks that require the function of the frontal lobe and
hippocampal regions (Howes, McCutcheon, & Stone, 2016). Additionally, glutamate also has

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an effect on dopamine function, and the role of glutamate pathways in schizophrenia has been
implicated in the development of the condition (Rubio, Drummond, & Meador-Woodruff,
2012).
Other than the neurotransmitter hypothesis, another proposed hypothesis in the
pathophysiology of paranoid schizophrenia is neurological abnormalities. The abnormalities
may take different forms including dysfunction of neurons in the brain (Pittman-Polletta,
Kocsis, Vijayan, Whittington, & Kopel, 2015), and myelination abnormalities (reduction in
the volume of grey matter) (Cassoli, et al., 2015). However, there is no consensus on how this
hypothesis contributes to the clinical picture of paranoid schizophrenia.
Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment in acute phase
The acute phase of paranoid schizophrenia occurs when a patient experiences the first
episode of psychosis or when a patient with prior history experiences a psychotic relapse.
Therefore, the focus of treatment in this phase is to reduce the severity of psychotic thoughts
and behaviours. In this phase, antipsychotic drugs are the first-line of treatment.
Antipsychotics have demonstrated to reduce symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions
(Patel, Cherian, Gohil, & Atkinson, 2014). With the exception of clozapine, evidence
suggests that any antipsychotic is more effective than other drugs in the management of
hallucinations and delusions in acute paranoid schizophrenia (Patel, Cherian, Gohil, &
Atkinson, 2014). Clozapine is more effective in those patients whose response to
antipsychotics is poor, but owing to the increased risk of agranulocytosis, Clozapine is
reserved to those with poor response or cannot tolerate antipsychotics (Fabrazzo, et al.,
2017). Other symptoms in this phase which may include lack of motivation and supressed
emotional expression have however proven difficult to treat, with only Cariprazine showing

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positive results (Németh, et al., 2017).The selection of an antipsychotic is based on both
severity of presentation, efficacy, side effects and available formulation.
The primary non-pharmacological intervention in the acute phase is electroconvulsive
therapy (ECT) (Kerner & Prudic, 2014). ECT is recommended in schizophrenia (Cassels,
2016). ECT involves the use of electricity to induce a therapeutic seizure to treat delusions
and incoherence. Its efficacy is supported by evidence by Kenner and Prudic (2014) who
claim that ECT has demonstrated comparable efficacy with antipsychotics.
Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment in non-acute phase
The non-acute phase follows a patient’s recovery from an acute psychotic phase. In the non-
acute phase, the symptoms are reasonably well controlled. Management in this phase aims at
minimising symptoms and functional impairments, preventing relapses, and promoting
recovery which will allow the patient have self-determination, can be fully integrated into the
society, and can also pursue personal goals (Stroup & Marder, 2017). Regardless, it is
recommended that antipsychotic medication should be continued indefinitely even in those
who have achieved remission from the first psychotic episode (Acto, 2013). However, the
dose used should be the lowest effective dose that achieves the therapeutic goals. In this
phase, patients are also involved in the clinical decision-making pertaining to how long they
will be on the antipsychotic drug therapy.
Alongside pharmacotherapy, nonpharmacological interventions that can be applied in this
phase include a combination of family and psychological interventions. Family interventions
have shown to manage the condition successfully and cost-effectively (Chien, Leung, Yeung,
& Wong, 2013). This is evidenced in a reduction in relapse rates. Other interventions are
targeted at substance misuse and motivational interventions. The risk of relapses is increased

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in drug misuse. Patients with paranoid schizophrenia who misuse substances are a special
challenge, and the most suited intervention in the community setting is psychological
interventions.
Notably, the most suited non-pharmacological intervention in this phase is cognitive-
behavioural therapy (CBT). It is a second frontline treatment in most western countries whose
main aim is to allow patients assume more control of their lives and also facilitate a return to
the previously-lost functionality (Trach & Mardon, 2016). In CBT, a therapist works with a
client to change their thinking behaviour and emotional responses. This gives the patient
more control of their lives. Researchers who have compared CBT with other psychosocial
interventions have found it to be quite effective compared to others (Rector & Beck, 2012).
Other alternatives include skills training and assertive community treatment.
Nursing management within the multidisciplinary care team
The multidisciplinary nursing care management has five key goals which include reducing
the severity of the symptoms, preventing recurrence of the acute episodes, meeting the
patient’s needs (physical and psychosocial), helping the patient regain the optimal level of
functioning, and increasing the patient's compliance to treatment (Dewit, Stromberg, &
Dallred, 2016). There are various routine clinical nursing care and interventions performed so
as to attain these goals.
a) Maximizing level of functioning: Promote independence while discouraging
dependence. Reward positive behaviours demonstrated and also work with the patient
to improve his/her sense of responsibility to improve function.
b) Promoting social skills
c) Ensuring adequate nutrition by monitoring the patient’s nutritional status

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d) Ensuring a safe environment for the patient.
e) Promoting compliance with medication; This includes administration of the
prescribed drugs and encouraging patient compliance. Also, check for adverse events
and reactions. Dealing with hallucinations; This includes counteracting it with reality.
Also, explore the nature of hallucinations and explain to the patient that they are not
real.
f) Encouraging family involvement; This also includes involving them in the treatment
and teaching them in early recognition of impending relapse. Also, teach them on how
to manage the symptoms.

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