Shipping Emissions and Mitigation Strategies

This assignment delves into the significant environmental impact of global shipping. It examines various pollutants emitted by ships, including CO2, SOx, NOx, and particulate matter. The analysis covers international regulations aimed at curbing these emissions, focusing on the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and its conventions like MARPOL Annex VI. Specific attention is given to Emission Control Areas (ECAs), the global sulfur cap, and energy-efficiency design index (EEDI). Moreover, the assignment explores mitigation strategies employed by the shipping industry, such as exhaust gas cleaning systems (scrubbers), alternative fuels, and operational improvements.

POTENTIAL MEASURE
TO REDUCE EMISSION
FROM SHIPS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 3: GENERAL IMPACTS OF EMISSION FROM SHIPPING OPERATIONS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH.........................................................................1
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1
3.2. Air emissions from shipping ..........................................................................................2
3.3. The effects of high sulphur content of fuel oil on ship operations..................................6
3.4. Ship emission impact in selected sea areas.....................................................................7
3.5. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTION AT IMO + EU TO REDUCE EMISSION LESSON TO LEARN
FROM THE EU.............................................................................................................................15
4.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................15
4.2 Environmental and public impacts from shipping are increasing..................................15
4.3 Shipping Emissions and Associated Impacts ................................................................16
4.4 IMO Regulations ...........................................................................................................18
4.5 GHG governance............................................................................................................25
4.5 Others.............................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS IN WEST AFRICA AND DISCHARGE CONTROL FIELD IF
THIS POSSIBLE FOR WEST AFRICA.......................................................................................33
5.1 Overview of Annex VI of MARPOL.............................................................................33
5.2 Discharge control area....................................................................................................33
5.2.1 Overview of discharge control area.............................................................................33
5.2.2 Emission Control Area (ECA) Criteria.......................................................................34
5.3 Methods for SOx reduction............................................................................................42
5.3.1 Low Sulphur Fuel Oil ( LSFO)...................................................................................42
5.3.2 Exhaust gas cleaning systems......................................................................................43
5.3.2.1 Sea water scrubber....................................................................................................43
5.3.2.2 Fresh Water Scrubber...............................................................................................44
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................45
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................47

Illustration Index
Illustration 1: The ship traffic density in June 2009 based on AMVER.........................................3
Illustration 2: Approximation of ship distribution based on ICOADS............................................4
Illustration 3: Comparing Fuel Consumption, CO2 and Other Emissions from International
Shipping and Aircraft for the Year 2000.........................................................................................6
Illustration 4: Map of Mediterranean Sea......................................................................................10
Illustration 5: Straits of Malacca Map. Source: Fajar Nugraha 2009............................................13
Illustration 6: Global Co2 emissions from shipping......................................................................17
Illustration 7: Global Non GHG emissions....................................................................................18
Illustration 8: CO2 reductions from EEDI balance........................................................................19
Illustration 9: Existing and Future ECAs in the World..................................................................20
Illustration 10: MARPOL Annex VI SOx Content Limit..............................................................21
Illustration 11: Shipping governance.............................................................................................25
Illustration 12: Carbon performance of the biggest shipping firms...............................................26
Illustration 13: Reduction discharge governance survey...............................................................30
Illustration 14: Sox scrubber..........................................................................................................31
Illustration 15: The SECA delineation of the Baltic and the North Sea........................................36
Illustration 16: The estimation of SOx emissions within the Baltic and the North Sea SECA ...38
Illustration 17: The ECA delineation of EEZ US and Canada ....................................................39
Illustration 18: ECA nd global sulphur cap redction progress from 2006 - 2020..........................43
Illustration 19: Principle diagram of sea water scrubbing (SWS) process....................................44
Illustration 20: Principle diagram of freshwater scrubbing (FWS) process..................................45

CHAPTER 3: GENERAL IMPACTS OF EMISSION FROM SHIPPING
OPERATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This particular section of dissertation includes information on study done regarding the
impacts of various emissions from the shipping operations along with their impacts on
surrounding environment and human life. It includes the discussion on growth of the maritime
transportation along the geographical distribution of shipping traffic areas. However, the focus is
done on various types of emission that are emitted in air and in water which pose harm to the
marine ecosystem, surrounding environment and human health.
3.1.1. The growth of maritime transportation
Global trading driven maritime transport organisation is related to the expansion of wide
ship emission inventories. There is a significant impact of Merchant ships on the worldwide
cargo transportation with the exchange volume of 80% of the trade in world. According to the
information aggregates good loaded was exceeded up to 8 million tons in 2007 and it was also
found that majority of the good that was loaded was dry cargo (United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2008). The fleet number in whole world were influenced by
the request of worldwide seaborne exchange invariably up to a reasonable capacity to carry out
the supply of goods. The world fleet having more than 100 GT of impelled maritime vessels
includes 97,504 vessels of 774.5 million GT having the average age of 22 years (IMO, 2008)
which includes the general cargo ships, container vessels, passenger's vessels, bulk carrier and oil
tankers. In case when whatever that was said is completed than in return, the quantity of all dry
and liquid transporting cargo vessels which contains coal, phosphate, grain, oil, ore,
bauxite/alumina, press metal and many other cargo's were expanded step by step in upcoming
more than 3 decades. In a survey that was conducted for loaded cargo statistics of maritime
transport reveals the high volume carriage having low value good such as grain and phosphate
and regardless to this there has been a significant expand in high estimation products that are
conveyed by these containers.
On the basis of Fearnley's review it was found that over the year around 32,932 billion
ton-miles international seaborne transport was recorded in 2007 against the 31,447 billion ton-
miles in 2006 (UNCTAD, 2008). However, it was found that estimated figure were highly
effected due to economic crises and the demands for transportation through cargo along the sea,
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which was attuned from the transport freight rate. Also, there were different ways for each type
of commodity to represent their transport fright rate which includes: the Baltic Exchange Dirty
Tanker Index (BDTI) for crude oil, the Hamburg Index (HIX) for container and Baltic Exchange
Dry Index (BDI) for dry bulk. The BDI was dramatically depreciated more than 11-fold from
11,793 in May 2008 to 891 in November 2008 (UNCTAD, 2008) followed by BDTI from
around 2100 in May 2008 to below 600 in February 2009 (UNCTAD, 2009, p.14) and HIX as
(Dynamar, 2009) writes “HIX decreased by 24% and 75% in February 2008 and February 2009
respectively” (UNCTAD, 2009, p.11).
As the result of sharp decline in demand of transport services because of the financial
crises, downsize in indexes were observed that further resulted in reduction of international
trade. Because of low demand for the maritime transport only small amount of ships were in use
while other merchant ships have not been used for a period. According to an example, Lloyd’s
List 2009 reveals that about 17.3 million dead weight ton of bulk carrier fleet or 9% of the
global fleet is not in use (UNCTAD, 2009, p.10) and according to Containerization International
2009 reports about 11% of the world's container fleet has been set down (UNCTAD, 2009, p.12).
And it was assumed that it may take from few months to several years in order to overcome from
the ongoing problem in shipping business. Similarly, the rate of BDI in February 2009, have
fluctuated from 600 to 2000 (UNCTAD, 2009, p.11). Although, it does not depict the recovery as
there are many other indexes that are still unaffected. However, the economic crises is still on the
way and in order to keep merchant vessels the pre-eminent mode of transport the company is
providing high volume cargo carriages at lower shipping costs. Thus, it can be inferred that the
development of maritime transport tends to increase the emission inventories, however the crises
is still going on.
3.2. Air emissions from shipping
3.2.1. The Geographical distribution of ship traffic areas.
Ships is the large watercraft that connects loading port to the unloading port in whole
world. These loading and unloading ports are connected through many trade routes of maritime
between Europe and America, Asia and America, and Europe and Asia. Also, the major loading
ports were mainly found in Asian region. For example, the ports of Singapore and China belongs
to twenty container terminal. On the basis of the above mentioned route the shipping traffic
density is concentrated in areas which fall in between 10o latitude north and 60o latitude north
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from the equator. And on the basis of this it was found that 85% of the ship traffic occurs in the
northern hemisphere (Friedrich, Heinen, Kamakaté & Kodjak, 2007, p.24). Many large
continents are located in northern hemisphere, similarly most of the trade areas are found in that
region only. For example, the engaged trade route in whole northern hemisphere region is trans-
Atlantic Ocean which links North America and European countries along the coast of china.
Illustration 1: The ship traffic density in June 2009 based on AMVER
Source: Fajar Nugraha 2009.
However, the high ship traffic density is mostly found in the coastal areas, even trans-
ocean routes being the main shipping lane. On the basis of the figure 2.1, in accordance with
Automated Mutual Assisted Vessel Rescue System (Fajar Nugraha, 2009), the density of trans-
ocean route is only 5-14 vessels per month that includes both Trans-Atlantic and Trans Pacific
routes (Fajar Nugraha, 2009). And when this data is compared with data of other routes that
includes the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, the Straits of Malacca and along the china coast, east
and west coast America and the Mediterranean Sea it was found that ship traffic that was found
in this region in 15 to more than 50 vessels/month. This pattern of shipping traffic is same as
found in past months.
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Illustration 2: Approximation of ship distribution based on ICOADS.
Source: Fajar Nugraha 2009.
On the basis of data obtained from Global ship movements from International
Comprehensive Ocean–Atmosphere Data Set (ICOADS) and AMVER database it was found that
ships concentration was high is coastal areas. According to ICOADS database, 1.9 million ships
on daily basis indicates that, 36% of ships are operated within 25 nm from shore, 44% of ships
are found within 50 nm from shore and 70% of ship traffic occurs within 200 nm from shore
(IMO, 2009, p. 21). As a result of large amount of traffic several problems are raised related to
air quality on land. It is mainly due to release of emission from ship and effect of direction and
velocity of wind. Thus, maritime transport become a serious threat to environment and human
health due to the fact that emission of ships travels 100 km inland and pose hazards.
3.2.2. Global shipping emission inventories
Three main pollutants are generated by ship engine which includes: carbon dioxide
(CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur oxides (Sox). Along with this there are many other
fumes that are discharged from ships to inland and in air such as nitrogen dioxides (NO2) and
nitrogen monoxides (NO) and these are labelled as Nox. Emission from SOx is mainly consists
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of SO2, SO3 (around 2-3%) and SO4 (Alexanderson, 1991, p.40). Due to the reaction between
NOx and Sox the particulate matter is formed. Emission studies has linked shipping traffic
density to estimate the global shipping emission inventories and several scholars and institutions
have already conducted this study (Endressen, Sørgaård, Sundet, Dalsøren, Isaksen, Berglen &
Gravir, 2003; Eyring, Köhler, van Aardenne and Lauer, 2005; Corbet, Winebrake, Green,
Kasibhatla, Eyring & Lauer, 2007; and IMO, 2009). Table 3.1 below, shows data regarding
various emission inventories between 1996 to 2012.
Table 3.1. Selected global emission inventories from 1996 to 2012.
Source: stated in the table.
When comparison was done among emission, CO2 comes out to be leading contributor in
overall combustion process with approximate amount of 1054 million tonnes in 2007. In past 16
years i.e. from 1996 to 2012 the growth that occur in NOx and SOx emissions become twice in
number except 8PM2.5. Due to the uncertainty in prediction of fuel consumption results in
discrepancy of NOx, SOx and PM2.5 inventories in mid of 2007 and 2012. According to IMO it
was estimated that fuel consumption in 2007 accounted for 333 million tonnes higher than fuel
consumption in 2012 that was 299 million tonnes (Corbet et.al). Hence, it can be concluded that
fuel consumption have its major contribution in ship emission inventories.
3.2.3. Comparison between ship emissions and other polluters
According to IMO (2008, p.29) contribution of emission from the ships in air pollution
was very low when compared to volume of emission from road traffic and public utilities. This
fact was accepted when it was known that emission of CO2 from ship emission constitute only
3.3% of the global CO2 emission in 2007 (IMO, 2009, p.7).
5

However, Eyring and Corbett (2007), supported the argument that shipping will be the
largest polluters when compared to road transport and aviation. This is because the SO2 that is
released from ship is the highest emission i.e. 12 tg/year when compared to different transport
modes. This was possible only because Annex VI was effectively enforced in 2005 so till 2002
shipping emission wee not regulated.
Illustration 3: Comparing Fuel Consumption, CO2 and Other Emissions from International
Shipping and Aircraft for the Year 2000
Source: Veronika Eyring and James J Corbett.
3.3. The effects of high sulphur content of fuel oil on ship operations.
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) contains high sulphur and which are consumed by most of the
diseal engines. It is the greatest environmental problem of maritime transport. These fuels helps
in generation of electricity on ships and also aid in generation of main engines and auxiliary
engines for ship propulsion (Fajar Nugraha, 2009). The heavy fuel oil consists of unwanted
elements like hydrocarbons, incombustible transition metals, polycyclic aromatic and sulphur
that are residual oil from petroleum refining process to produce Marine Diesel Oil (MDO),
Marine Gas Oil (MGO) and other distillate oil.
There are several disadvantages of HFO. For example, it requires heating upto 140oC in
order to burn the viscous substances. Ships must have ample amount of sludge tanks to
accommodate the sludge of heavy fuel oil, which cannot used during combustion but must be
remove on-board. The components are burnt in the boiler of the ships or into transfer to reception
6

facilities. Moreover, the fumes exhausted by the ships emits harmful substances, which not only
impacts on environment but also affects the health of human beings.
3.4. Ship emission impact in selected sea areas.
Emission of NOx, SOx and PM from ships causes acidification, eutrophication, human health
damage and ground level ozone. This impacts on environment and human health simultaneously.
This Chapter will cover the impact of those emissions on the environment and human health. The
rules regarding restriction of those emissions in ECA will also be discussed.
3.4.1. The Baltic Sea
In the Northern Europe, Baltic Sea is located, which is surrounded with the Gulf of Bothnia in
the north, the Gulf of Finland in the east, the Gulf of Gdansk and the Gulf of Riga in the south
and the southeast respectively. With an area of approximately 415 thousand square kilometre,
Baltic sea is the largest brackish water basin in the world. (Helsinki Commission HELCOM,
2009). It is surround by countries: Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
Poland, and Germany. The fresh water from rivers and rain and seawater combines gives the
brackish water of the Baltic sea. Quite few animal and plant species live in the low salinity of
the Baltic Sea environment, which is similar to a lake or an estuary. Human Activities are
responsible for the increase in pollution in the Baltic Sea. Due to which many spices of animals
and aquatic plants are on the verge of extinction. Annex I, Annex V and Annex VI of MARPOL
73/78 declares Baltic Sea as special area 10 after increase in the vulnerability. Particularly
Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA11) in 2005 declared Baltic sea as ECA in Appendix B. The list of
other special areas are presented under MARPOL.
As per, Pawlak, Laamanen & Andersen (2009, p.5), due to eutrophication 161 coastal
areas affected by the pollution of 171 coastal areas surrounding Baltic Sea. IT can be stated that
more than 90% of the total area were affected by the emission and pollution of Baltic Sea.
Several indicators of eutrophication occur in the Baltic Sea such as cyanobacteria, which have
covered beaches in the northern Baltic and in the Baltic Proper (HELCOM, 2006, p.16).
Inconvenience for recreational activities, reduced water transparency and low oxygen level are
the common problems and issues arises in the Baltic Sea. Thus, it implies that eutrophication
creates a great impact on tourism industry and marine ecosystem of the Baltic Sea.
The lesser expectancy in the human life considers the anthropogenic emissions from the
ships. The expectancy rate of even the Baltic countries has considered as below the average
7

values (Cofala et al, 2007, p. 39). This is because of the minimised traffic density of shipping in
the northern Baltic sea. When compared with the other parts of the European Sea, it was founded
lesser. According to Corbet and et.al (2007), there were a huge number of deaths as the
premature mortalities in the Mediterranean sea and Europe in the year 2002. A very wider
contribution to the mortality comes through the emissions from the ships that are navigating from
the sea and the Mediterranean sea. Health care is considered as a very essential service that is
being provided by the private and public sectors, specially in countries in which focus is on
preventing the illness that is being done by the emissions from the ships. This seems quite costly.
According to an environmental agency, it was analysed that for about 4.5 billion euro annually,
are being used for prevention of various diseases such as cancer etc. which is being done because
of the emissions (Transport & Environmental Bulletin, 2009). There are various strategies that
are helpful enough to reduce the emissions from the ships and these are taken from the shipping
and the land industries.
3.4.2 The English Channel and the North Sea
The north sea and the English channel is being considered as the strait of dover in the northern
boundary and the souther end as well. The northern sea occupies about 750,000 km and has a
volume of about 94,000 km (Vlasblom, 2006, p.51). It involves the English channel and the
straits of doves as well. It is considered as very shallow and is deep for about 700 m as the
northern Trench is (Ducrotoy & Elliot, 2008, p.9). Various emissions are released from the ships
such as NOx, SOx etc. When compared it with the Baltic Sea, the inventories in the emissions in
the North Sea are analysed as more than twice. It is enough understandable that the predictions
of the inventory are calculated on the basis of the movements in the ship (Cofala et al, 2007,
p.10). In fact, the number of ships navigating in the North Sea is larger than in the Baltic Sea as
stated above.
There were predictions regarding the emission of SO2 and NO2 that, 90% of these
pollutants were originating from the zone of 50 nautical miles which contaminate the north sea
along with English channel (The EEB et al, 2004, p.3). The presence of SO2 in environment
result sin acid rain which leads to acidification that layers the chemical composition of the land
and water and adversely effect the rainforest. For example, there is high deposition of acid in
several forests such as Germany 62,491 km, Belgium 4591 Km and in UK it is 4924 km (Cofala
8

et al, 2007, p.45). Due to deposition of acid on land the minerals are depleted which tends to
impair the growth of tress.
Along with this, life expectancy is also considered to be one major indicator of effect of
particulate mater on the human life. However, the average life expectancy in EU's 27 member
state was found to be 8 months in year 2000, along with this several other countries that border
Great Northern sea also witnessed this loss (Cofala et al, 2007, p.40). For example in Belgium it
was 12.17 month, Netherlands experience 11.51 and UK have 6.71 months. From the above data
it is clear that air quality in the Northern European countries that borders the Baltic Sea is good
for human health when compared to other countries due to less ship traffic density factor.
However, in the upcoming years if Arctic sea route becomes shipping lane, that will connect
both Europe and Asia then it will degrade the quality of air in that region and ultimately decrease
the life expectancy of people.
3.4.3. The Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean sea is the largest intercostal sea, that separates the Europe, Asia and
Africa. It is also connected to the Atlantic Ocean and is completed enclosed by land from three
sides i.e. in North by Southern Europe and Anatolia, in South by North Africa and in the east by
Levant. The Mediterranean sea is along which covers the approximate area of 2,965,000 km2
with the average depth of more than 200 m (Clark, 2001, p. 206). The eastern and western
Mediterranean are separated by a channel known as Sicilian Channel with the formation of
different type of hydrological and geographical characteristics between them. The approximate
length of Mediterranean sea coast is 46,000 km with the dense populations comprising 601 cities
which receives 175 million tourist each year (Abdulla & Linden, 2008, p. 7).
9

Illustration 4: Map of Mediterranean Sea.
The Mediterranean sea is also connects the Atlantic Ocean through the strait of Gibraltar
and the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal forming one of the major
maritime transport route. There were 2,50,000 movements of the ships which are above 500 GT
along with the additional 1,00,000 ferry movement in the Mediterranean sea, which was
observed by Lloyd's Marine Intelligence Unit in 2005 (Meech, 2005, p. 55). The above
mentioned data do not include record of movement done by Naval ships, small watercraft and
fishing vessels as these were excluded from the emission inventories estimation process.
Although, these ships are enough to generate high amount of emission that can pose hazardous
impact on marine life along with human beings.
The most prominent seas that were used for maritime transport have suffered greatly
from Eutrophication due to release of NOx in water by ships. According to a study
(EMEP/MSC-W, 2000) it was found that the movement done by ships contribute to the increase
in nutrients loads by 50% in the coastlines of Croatia, Spain, Italy and Greece (as cited in EEA,
2006, p. 51). Increase in nitrogen based nutrients loads in sea leads to formation of algal blooms
that tends to kill fishes and cause toxic effects on the human life. The major impact of the
Eutrophication that is caused by algal blooms and depletion of oxygen from the sea is mortality
of fishes. Along with that by the consumption of this contaminated sea food also leads to
sickness in humans.
Acid rain leads to destruction of forest on the coast of Mediterranean sea. This forest soil
is located in many regions of Mediterranean countries with which have acid deposition above the
10

critical level. This soil in found in countries like in France it is 19,649 km followed by Greece
943 km and Spain 900 km (Cofala, 2007, p. 45). The area of forest that is damage by the
acidification will also pose the negative impact on complete ecosystem of that area. Many
animals are dependent on trees for their food and habitat which get destroyed due to the
destruction of trees. Along with this the trees in that area are not able to hold and absorb enough
water which leads to flood and land slides in that particular ecosystem.
3.4.4. The US and Canadian waters
The coastline of US consists of both Atlantic ocean and pacific ocean, in which Atlantic
ocean border the US in east and pacific ocean borders in west. The coast of Atlantic is stretched
from Maine to souther Florida and consists of many large bays and rivers on the other hand the
coast of pacific have numerous islands, peninsulas and fjords. The total length of the US
coastline is 12,383 miles that also include Alaska which stretches up to 6,640 miles and Hawaii
with 750 miles (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009, p. 214). However, Canada is considered to be the
world largest coastline extending up to 243,000 km also the second largest EEZ (Canada’s
Federal Marine Protected Areas Strategy, 2005, p.4).
On the basis of estimation it was concluded that, emission in the air of US and Canada is
going to be double in the upcoming 18 years (Wang et al ). On the basis of this estimation it was
predicted that 700,000 tonnes of NOx, 400,000 tonnes of SOx and 58,000 tonnes of particulate
air emissions is going to be produced by movement of ships in US and Canadian Economic
Exclusive Zones till 2002. Along with this, on the basis of above predicted data it is considered
that these figures may rise up to 1.3 million tonnes of NOx, 969,000 tonnes of SOx and 115,000
tonnes of particulate air by 2020 (IMO, 2009, p.15). On the basis of above calculation no action
scenario can be implicated as there no reduction in emission generated by ships which are
operated in that particular region.
There is increased level of damage to environment and the human life because of the
implication of no action scenario. In the region of Chesapeake Bay in Mid Atlantic Coast on US
the ship emission contribute up to 30% Nitrogen that causes acidification (IMO, 2009, p.4). For
example, there are 580 streams in Mid Atlantic Coastal Plain that tends to make water more
acidic (Environmental Protection Agency EPA, 2009). This process of deposition of acid in the
inland hinder the optimum growth of aquatic phytoplankton's that leads to disappearance of
crayfish, shellfish and many other types of fish from that region. Similarly, in the region of
11

eastern Canada same situation occurs, where the growth of aquatic microorganisms have
impaired that act as the source of food for various fishes (IMO, 2009b, p.5). There are several
fishes which are acid sensitive and tends to die in acidic environment such as brook trout,
walleye and salmon. For example, there is a wide decline in population of the Atlantic salmon in
Southern Upland region of Nova Scotia due to acid rain. As a result of this acidification of water
the population of salmon has declined from 45,000 to less than 5,000 in the areas 57 rivers
(Purcell, 2007, p.1).
PM2.5 and ozone emissions results in the premature mortality that will lead to 5,100-
12,000 deaths by 2020 (EPA, 2009, p.6). On the basis of above studies it can be estimated that
PM2.5 will lead to premature motility and result in 5,100 deaths by 2012 in North America
(Corbet’s research 2007, p.8515). On the basis of different type of database generation and
methodology adopted number of predictions are done which are related to premature motility but
at the end result shows that impact of PM2.5 and ozone on human health is not eluded. In case if
any initiative is not taken by government of both sides then it will harm half of the total
population that is living on Atlantic and pacific coastline which accounts for 330 million lives of
US and Canadian inhabitants (IMO, 2009b, p.2). On the basis of this a joint proposal was sent to
IMO by US and Canada government in order to design their coastal areas as ECA.
3.4.5. The Straits of Malacca
The Straits of Malacca is situated between west coast of the Malaysian Peninsula and the
east coast of Sumatera Island and is also connected with the Straits of Singapore at south east
end. The overall of this strait is 600 nm with the widest part of 220 nm at it's north-west side and
then it keeps on narrowing up to 8 nm at south east entrance which is situated near Riau
archipelago (Thia-Eng, Gorre, Ross, Bernad, Gervacio & Ebarvia 2000, p.160). It is a shallow
area having irregular depth ranging from 17 metres to 55 (ThiaEng et al, 2000, p.160) metres
along with the tidal variation of water level which ranges from 1.6 m to 3.7 m (Kullenberg,
2008).
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Illustration 5: Straits of Malacca Map. Source: Fajar Nugraha 2009.
The Strait of Malacca is considered to be one of the important shipping route that
connects Indian Ocean with the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It was estimated that
90,000 ships of more than 100 GT tends to pass through this strait (Kullenberg, 2008) in a year
carrying half of the total worlds oil supply (Tongzon, 2008). There were several factors such as
shallow water area, narrow shipping lane and high ship traffic density that leads to increase in
the ship collisions, pirate attack and running a ground. In accordance to this the three stated
namely Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore have made efforts in order to update the chart of
Strait of Malacca which includes the information about sea level and currents that occur in the
sea just to enhance the technology of navigation and control system that includes traffic
separation schemes.
It was also found that people are less interested regarding the contribution of ships that
harms environment. But on the other hand they are highly attracted towards incidents of ship
accident and piracy issues. This statement is indicated by limited availability of publication on
the environmental issues within strait. Along with this there is absence of any intergovernmental
declaration regarding the protection of Strait of Malacca from air pollution. There were many
scholars from Malacca who were aware regarding contribution of ship in degradation of natural
environment, so there is need of parties to take this issue in their consideration.
13

As per the study of street (Carmichael, & Arndt 1997, p.1576), there contribution of SO2
emission in contaminating the Malacca ranges in between 40,000 to 60,000 tones in a year. This
emission of SO2 results in deposition of acid that causes damage to the marine ecosystem by
destroying the coral reefs, soft bottom habitats and its neighbouring lands including estuaries and
mangrove forests on the Strait of Malacca. Along with this, deposition of acid in Mangroves
forest which are found along the coast of Strait of Malacca was estimated with 447, 680 ha and
385,000 ha (Thia-Eng et al, 2000, p.162).
On the basis of acid deposition through SO2 emission streets (Guttikunda and Carmichael
(2000, p.4431) predicted that there will be increase in acid deposition from 66 to 112 mg
between 1988 to 1995 in the coastal area of Strait of Malacca. Along with this he also predicted
the increase in deposition in upcoming years from 1995. He states that in absence of controllable
measures in order to mitigate the impacts of air pollution on environment, the adverse damage on
ecosystem of Strait of Malacca would have been occurred. According to IMO none of the special
area under MARPOL 73/78 nor PSSA would have given resolution to Straits of Malacca to
protect its environmental ecosystems. So, to protect the Strait of Malacca littoral states have to
take appropriate measures by submitting the joint reports regarding special areas and PSSA to
IMO. The fact regarding the worst air quality in South East Asian Waters can convince IMO
member states to include the strait as special area under Annex I and Annex VI.
3.5. Conclusion
The occurrence of economic crises have resulted in reduction of international trade that
causes ships to get laid up along with 10% of world fleet mainly related to bulk carries and
container ship in 2009. In accordance to result of AMVER on ship density it was found that most
of the ships are mainly concentrated in coastal areas. However, on the basis of ICOADS
approximately 70% of the ships are concentrated in EEZ which tends to decrease by 36% when
they approach 25 nm from coastline.
Major airborne emission such as particulate matter Nox and SOx results in acidification,
premature mortality and Eutrophication in the regions of the Mediterranean sea, the Baltic Sea,
the North Sea and the US and Canadian waters. Among them the most polluted area is
Mediterranean sea. On the basis of the statistics available it can be estimated that emissions of
NOx, SOx and PM in the Mediterranean Sea in 2000 were more than twice in the North Sea and
14

five times in the Baltic Sea respectively. Although the ECA proposal which designates the
Mediterranean sea as ECA has not yet submitted to IMO.
In 2002 the emission of NOx, SOx and PM in US and Canadian waters were estimated to
be up to 700 kilotonnes, 400 kilotonnes, and 58 kilotonnes respectively. These figures were to
those in North sea emission in the year 2000. there was a thought that this rate of emission can be
decreased by nominating US and Canadian waters for ECA.
Even after having knowledge regarding problems related to air emission in Strait of
Malacca, there was availability of limited number of research in concerned to emission
inventories along with this there is also absence of joint initiative by the littoral states to protect
the Strait from danger of pollution.
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTION AT IMO + EU TO REDUCE EMISSION
LESSON TO LEARN FROM THE EU.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This particular section of dissertation includes discussion on effects of various types of
emissions from ship such as SO2, Nox, Particulate matter and carbon monoxide particularly in
the West Africa. This section also includes the discussion on the increasing shipping industries
and its impact on public and environment. The discussion also focus on various emitters and
their contribution in the total world's emission along with the IMO regulation for both GHG and
non GHG.
4.2 Environmental and public impacts from shipping are increasing
Among the total world's emission, contribution of emission form ship is 3%. This
increasing rate of emission from the ship in the environment has resulted in many hearts and
respiratory related diseases. Maritime industry also play major role by their contribution through
release of green house gases that result in environmental changes. The shipping industry is
facing extreme pressure from various investors general and supervisor, that challenge its
emission and progression in energy efficiency. Form the world's total green house gas emission
the contribution of ship industry alone comes out to be 3% along with this there is increase in
industries share. Further increase in the maritime transport without getting any gain in their
15

energy efficiency has resulted in making shipping industry contributor of 6% of the worlds total
Green House Gas emission by year 2010 and further gain of 15% by year 2050.
The world have witnessed implication of number of new concepts and regulations in the
past 3 years. These regulation will have a significant impact on the future of maritime industry.
Initially there will be formation of reports that will include information on different types
of emissions that are released by ships and their association with hazard on human life and
environment. After that we will be going to inspect the regulatory context and it consequences on
shipping industry. Then finally we will look for different solution that can be used to solve the
ongoing problems related to the emission from ships and looking for the opportunities to create
more stringent regulations for the companies that offer solution regarding problems of emission.
4.3 Shipping Emissions and Associated Impacts
In the current scenario of globalisation, shipping industry is key contributor in world's
economy. More than 90% of the global trade is done via sea. There are more than 104,000 ships
in the fleet of sea going merchant ships of more than 100 gig tones (GT). Like other transport
companies, the shipping industry also need fossil fuels to conduct work. These fossil fuels in turn
produce green house and non greenhouse gases.
4.3.1 GHG Emissions
Under the Green House Gases protocol 6 gases are considered as greenhouse gases
namely: carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorooctane sulphate (PFCs),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Carbon dioxide (CO2): This greenhouse gas is most relevant to shipping industry.
Globally the concentration of emission of CO2 is doubled from year 1990 with
concentration of 1,050 million tonnes in 2007. The emission of CO2 in shipping industry
represent 3% of the total world's CO2 emission.
 Other greenhouse gases: There are many other green house gases that are also released
by shipping industries such as CH4, N2O, and HFCs. Annual aggregated emission of all
these green house gases tends to represent equivalent to 21 million tones CO2 emission.
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Illustration 6: Global Co2 emissions from shipping
Source: IMO second study 2009
4.3.2 Non-GHG Emissions
Along with greenhouse gases shipping industry also produce many non green house gases
such as sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM).
4.3.3 Sulphur oxides (Sox):
Shipping industry is one of the top emitter of SOx with the global emission of 15 million
tonnes in 2007 which represent the 50% increase in its production from 1997. It also represents
5% to 8% contribution of shipping industry in worlds total SOx emission. It was also found that
in year 2000 2.3 million tonnes of SO2 was emitted by ships in seas that surrounds Europe.
4.3.4 Nitrogen oxides (Nox):
Shipping industry is also a major contributor in worlds NOx emission. It was estimated
that around 3.3 million tonnes of NOx was emitted by ships in the seas that surround the Europe
in year 2000. Globally shipping industry represents 15% of the worlds total NOx emission. It
was also found that there have been 39% increase i.e. 25 million tonnes of NOx was released by
ships in 2007 when compared to production in year 1997.
4.3.5 Particulate Matter (PM):
Globally, 1.8 million tonnes of particulate air was released in 2007 which represents the
50% increase from the year 1997. In 2000, 2,50,000 tonnes of particulate matter was emitted by
ships in Europe. The amount of particulate matter release by ship is much lower than the
emission of SOx and NOx. The amount of particulate matter and SOx are correlated to each
17

other this is because the increase in SOx emission tends to increase the emission of particulate
matter.
Illustration 7: Global Non GHG emissions
Source: IMO second study 2009.
The emission from shipping industry leads to various environmental problems. GHG
leads to long term change in climate and on the other hand non GHG causes acid rain, decline in
the agricultural yields, damage to the monuments, contamination of water, deforestation and
alternation in the biology of soil.
These emissions can also result in negative social impacts. There are major impacts of
climate changes such as drought, excess rain which can leads to various social conflicts. Along
with this the air pollution caused due to non GHG can results in heart and lungs related problems
that causes cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Another negative impact of non-GHG
emission is that it reacts in natural environment and forms particulate. Longer exposure to these
particulate matter can effect the persons cognitive capabilities.
4.4 IMO Regulations
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO), is an organisation of United Nation
which is responsible for the development and appropriate maintenance of regulatory framework
related to shipping industry. It conducts routinely regulations programmed on emission of both
GHG and non GHG.
GHG Emissions
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Emission of green house gases from ships are not regulated by United Nation Framework
Convention on the climatic change also known as Kyoto protocol. During the UN Climate
Change Conference that was held in Durban in year 2011, no new regulations were proposed to
cover the shipping emission. However, the inclusion of Kyoto protocol become crucial after
addressing the obligation of the government to in order to reduce the GHG emission.
After getting aware regrading the impacts of emission, international shipping community
came to a conclusion that only way to control the emission is to have directing measures from
IMO. And in order to tackle the problem of increased emission IMO set 2 new policies namely:
the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
(SEEMP). These new policies fall under the category of energy efficiency/emission standards.
These policies were mainly applied on ships having 400 tonnes gross tonnage and above, and
came into action by 1 January 2013. Both mechanisms have different criteria to achieve, EEDI
tends to set the minimum efficiency standards for all the new ships while on the other hand
SEEMP guides ship owners to measure the fuel deficiencies of all existing ships and keep a
check if any changes take place in the operation performed. According to EEDI, the CO2
reduction level the first phase was 10% and will be tightened by every passing 5 years. The
baseline is set for the every new ship that was formed in between years 2000 to 2010.
Illustration 8: CO2 reductions from EEDI balance
Source: IMO second study 2009.
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4.4.1 Non-GHG Emissions
IMO also regulate the non-GHG emissions and accordingly an important convention
known as, International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) was
initiated in 1973 to target several causes of air pollution by ships. In 1997 Annex VI was added
in the convention that addresses various exhaust gases which are emitted from ships such as
SOx, NOx, and particulates as well as emission control areas, volatile organic compounds for
tankers and shipboard incineration. This Annex was also helpful in setting various standards to
limit the air pollution from ships. This regulation procedure was applicable on both new and old
ships.
The 4 major Emission Control Areas in the world are:
 Baltic Sea area: only for SOx
 North American area: for SOx, NOx and particulate matter.
 North Sea area: only for SOx
 United States Caribbean Sea area: for SOx, NOx and PM (came into force in January
2013 and will be in effect from January 2014).
The below available map gives us the view of all the currently working and upcoming ECA's.
There is a assumption that many new ECA's will come into force in few upcoming years
especially in Mediterranean region, japan and Singapore.
Illustration 9: Existing and Future ECAs in the World
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Source: Sustainalytics 2013
Sulphur emission evidenced two major thresholds that are applied on shipping industries
which includes: In all Sulphur emission control areas (SECA's) the maximum level of
sulphur that can be used in marine was defined and should be under 1.00 % of total mass
(m/m) till December 2014 and is further reduced to 0.10% m/m by 1 January 2015. Along
with this, in areas outside SECA's the maximum sulphur content that can be used in Marine
fuels is reduced from 3.50% to 0.50% m/m up to January 2020.
Illustration 10: MARPOL Annex VI SOx Content Limit
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
Regarding to nitrogen oxide emissions, the thresholds depends on the vessel concept
which is Tier 1, Tier 2 and Tier 3 as shown in the table. This concept is identified based on the
vessel's structure date and speed of the engine. Ships are made up before 1 January 2000 with
diesel engines above 5000KW are required to be installed an authorized approval or a
appropriate certification stating the compliance with the standard of Tier 1. Ships will be created
after 2015 that will be required to compete with Tier 3 standards in ECA's. The regulations of
Nox will not be apply to the vessel that is used for essential operations or to marine engines that
underwent major conversions before may 2005.
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Tier calculation and emission limit
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
4.4.2 Regulations in the European union
EU has the set of specific and essential targets and rules and they have various policies
for development execution. For non-GHG emissions they follow only that standards that is set by
the IMO.
4.4.3 GHG discharge
EU set the target to decrease the GHG discharge by 20% by the year of 2020 as
compared to 1990 levels, and they have the vision to decrease shipping discharge by 40-50% by
2050.8 to get these all targets they provide and implement the new trading schemes for shipping
market, a move is similar to what happen with the air-plane industry. The EU will not give push
for a shipping transmission too fact given the problems that arose following the inclusion of air
power market in the transmission trading policies. EU provides different types of policies in
which they provide shipping deduction methodology for the company. Sot hat they can easily get
the appropriate environment. They provide emmission trading schemes for th efirm so that they
can apply to reduce the transportation charge.
In October 2012, EU announced that they was considering the adoption system for three
purpose such as identifying the issues, observation, coverage and confirmation of fuel based
discharge. They feel MRV is the first step to plaining and implement of the discharge trading
system. N the policies they follow the rules such as MRV in a place, ship operation would be
essential to observe and coverage their fuel activity and CC transmission and the end party
would not need to verify the information. They provide governance scheme to reduce the fuel
22

charges based on the different trading mechanism to improve the discharge system. They follows
these steps such as monitoring, reporting and verifying the data.
Main objective of MRV is to cover only vessels of 5,000 tonnes and above and these
vessels accounting for 90% of summation of shipping discharge. EU develop some bills for pilot
projects that will support to create efficient projects in the industry. Any industry based measure
propose by EU will not permit to enter in the force until 2017.
4.4.4 Non-GHG discharge
IMO has the standards that have been incorporated in to the EU laws, and the group
members are required to transfer the rule in to national laws. They have the responsibilities to
transmit their regulation to the IMO. All members have the responsibilities to transmit discharge
standards into their national legislation and implement them if essential by 18 June 2014.
4.4.5 voluntary opening around the world
ECA are not established properly and where shipping industry has many big sources of
Sox and Nox discharge, voluntary opening have been appeared in an effort to anticipate future
emission control areas.
A volant initiate was set up by shipping organizations to decrease Sox discharge in
Singapore. Singapore authorities provides financial policies for firm so that they can use fuel or
abatement technologies efficiently. Maersk also involves in the Singapore initiative to provide
sulphur fuel at low cost when they have financial losses.
In Hong Kong, Maersk has tie up with 18 other organizations entered into the volant pact
to use much fuel up to 0.5% sulphur content. 17 of the firm decided to extend the agreement until
the end of 2013 because they provide effective and good financial policies. The government also
help and support the initiative by offering a 50% deduction in definite fees to the ships at spot
that they used low sulphur fuel. These authorities provide effective policies and schemes to use
low-sulphur fuel in the company. The government of Hong Kong is also provides
implementation plan for use of low-sulphur fuel. So that they can get the financial and
operational cost in the firm.
Authority of Hong kong are considering rules and regulations to enforce the use of low-
sulphur fuel at position. The government also provide the effective plan to do so. The guideline
and the instruction is not planned at this level, but the government send the proposal after discuss
23

with the transport sector if the Hong kong implements all these regulations then it will become a
biggest port in Asia where they use low-sulphur fuel will be essential by law.
4.4.6 Planetary
There are four policies that is used by regulators to decrease discharge and support
energy efficiency and all this policy provides new energy discharge standards and motivating
reporting and observing of transmission are preferred by policy maker in the shipping market. In
the below table there are relevance factors for shipping organizations.
policies and relevance factors for shipping organizations
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
EEDI and SEEMP and the EU is support MRV system this are the first step of global
regulations on CO2 discharge from shipping. In coming years they develop cap and trade
mechanism to the market based firm. Complications arise from the airline industry that affect the
EU discharge trading process. Sox and Nox discharge standards are set to both of the levels
which is IMO and EU. The result of an IMO study on fuel availability may break the social
control of the 2020 0.5% Sox limit that is fixed by the IMO. The shipping market is also worried
about whether the supply of low-sulphur fuel will be efficient to complete the task and
operations. EU discharge trading strategy is slow down process because they are not using the
cap trade scheme.
24

Illustration 11: Shipping governance
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
4.5 GHG governance
GHG regulations provides the policies that will help to monitor, reporting and verify the
trade system that will have the impact on the financial performance of the firm. They have main
objective to increase the capital cost and increase the operational cost of the company.
Maersk, Mitsui and Nippon Yusen are the main key player of the market. They provide
appropriate governance to increase the financial cost and performance in the industry. Mitsui
invent the can and trade approach that generates a competitive advantage in the market. Maersk
states that the governance policies has the direct impact on the firm performance in next one to
five years and they consider Sox and Nox discharge standards because they have the largest
importance of impact. Organization are prepared to adopt innovative GHG governance to
increase the performance.
Strong fleet management programs made up by the group wide discharge deduction
targets and have an effective record of accomplishment in terms of management. The below
table shows carbon performance of world biggest stock listed shipping organizations.
25

Illustration 12: Carbon performance of the biggest shipping firms
Source: sustainalytics 2013
Maersk shows the highest performance, that is followed by Japanese carriers, Mitsui and
Nippon. Many methods can be considered in shipping firms in reducing their GHG discharge
and financial cost. There are many methods such as speed deduction, route optimization and
efficient use of turbo charges. They used these methods to reduce the company cost which is
financial and operational. All these methods have different characteristics to manage the firm
cost. Pacific basin can decrease its discharge through improved fuel consumption, operating
activity. They have average of fleet age is 8.2 years, is awaited to order 16 new ships between
2013 and 2015. Some entities such as great eastern shipping not expose data on discharge
deduction methods.
Non-GHG governance is most effective change in the market that will cause by Sox
discharge governance and to lesser extent, Nox and PM discharge if firm want to compete wit
Sox governance, they need to opt for energy alternatives such as low-sulphur fuel and natural gas
or equipment themselves scrubbers. Shipping firms agree that they want to apply technologies to
increase the cost. In Europe, the changes will ostensibly have to be implement without financial
assist of EU member. According to Maersk, opting for low-sulphur fuel will result in an
additional USD 2520 million in fuel cost. Shipping organizations are likely to pass on this
increment in cost to the clients and some of them may request to the financial support from
26

national governments. They take support from the governments which provide implement plan
for the customers to reduce costs.
Organizations are prepared to comply with innovate new-GHG governance they will help
to increase financial and operational cost. Globally and per country has strong disclosure of all
discharges that have critical risks backed by target and that is related to with current governance.
Non-GHG regulations has the criteria in which they have type of discharges such as Sox, Nox
and PM. They are globally compete with the other organizations. They have current fuel that is
worldwide usable with 1% sulphur content outside SECAs by 2017. This is currently used by the
companies to reduce the financial costs. They are well prepared to adopt new technologies of
low-sulphur fuel because the government provides implementation plan for them. In this plan
they give structure of place, work, data, issues. Based on the information they can compete with
other organization in the market. They also have good track record in terms of fleet management.
The below table shows sulphur performance of world biggest firm. Fleet management are use
sulphur intensity that is in the line or that can be in the below the market average.
Sulphur performance of world's biggest shipping firm
Maersk and Nippon shows the highest and good performance followed by mitsui OSK
and Kawasaki KK. Maersk and nippon have the lowest sulphur intensities. Mitsui and Kawasaki
are only entities that have the set of targets to decrease Sox discharges. They used only 1%
annual deduction for Mitsui OSK and the main objective of remove all leased ships that are not
using the low-sulphur fuel for Nippon Yusen KK. Neptune orient lines and orient overs eases are
27

lagging behind mainly because of less transparency. Lack of opacity affect the company
financial performance. Firms generally report on various options for agreement, which will
described later.
4.5.1 possibility for energy and equipment providers
As discussed above, the governance of EU discharge and another forms of impurity
increase require shipping entities to manipulate more effectively in order to reduce their
operational and financial cost. Emerging from these requirements are new possibilities for many
firms that provide the shipping market, including fuel, ship designer providers. For these
organizations possibilities lie in the demand for more effective and impurity strategies if they
failure to provide these technologies then they could put shipping supplier at a more competitive
disadvantage. This part contains technologies of GHG and non-GHG discharge and highlighting
many entities that offers such kind of technologies. This sections identify various strategies and
possibilities, technologies solutions for both GHG and non-GHG discharges. Some of the
companies follows these solutions to reduce the cost of the fuel.
4.5.2 Possibilities emerging from GHG governance
The government provides appropriate governance of GHG discharge that have many
opportunities for firms that serves in the shipping market. Below we focused on possibilities for
fuel creation and ship builders.
4.5.3 Engine industry
One of the key means to reduce GHG discharge is to improve the efficiency of the fuel.
Technologies can help to reduce discharge by 40%. The industry of ship fuel makers is currently
dominated by seven players Cummins, MTU, MAN, Rolls-Royce, Wastsila, caterpillar,
Mitsubishi. All these players uses different types of methods of discharging. Wartsila, Rolls-
Royce, MAN and Caterpillar are the best and good players in the industry because they take
profit from innovate governance on shipping discharge. Wartsila and Rolls-Royce recently offers
the biggest function of transportation items. This may consitute a competitive advantage for
shipping operating in and out of ECAs. These players can compete with each of them because
they used various types of opportunities to reduce the cost.
4.5.4 Designers and ship makers
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The EEDI will require ship makers to pay greater attention to fuel efficiency, they have
possibilities for the firms that they have invested in R&D over the past few years. South Korean
companies has the largest industry size around USD 167 billion and they also follow Chinese
and Japanese firms. Hundai heavy market, samsung, Daewoo and marine enginnering, STX etc.
these all are the companies they create world biggest container ship. They used all innovative
technology solutions for the issues. Vessel has efficient technologies:gas by pass system, ballast
water treatment system, controlled engine that can reduce Nox discharge and effective plan to
use of hyphenate low-sulphur fuel. The UK flagged macro polo that is launched in November
2012 by french carrier CMA CGM the vessel has the biggest technologies such as gas pass
system etc. the CMA CGM vessel already meets the 2025 target( An EEDI deduction of 30%
from a 2000-2010 baseline). They give the baseline from 2000-2010 to maintain and apply
efficient strategies to reduce the fuel cost as well as the financial cost.
4.5.5 possibilities emerging from non-GHG governance
In February, lioyd's register, a volant association of ship owners, ship makers, asked 14
of the world leading shipping firms about their purpose to create technologies to justify non-
GHG discharge. In the below table, four types of solutions as they are most applicable to follow
with forthcoming non-GHG related governance. There are two types of solutions in which each
has implemented by different gases or engine. The first two solution is combination of low-
sulphur and gas (MGO) more commonly called low-sulphur fuel and they can also call fuel mix
or duel mix that is made up by natural gases and diesel. The third solution is the use of scrubbers.
The forth solution is use of LNG and this is the combination of various liquefied gases. Low-
sulphur is currently has the efficient short-term solutions for reduction and increase the financial
cost in the company.
29

Illustration 13: Reduction discharge governance survey
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
4.5.6 Scrubbers
This is used to remove sulphur from the engine gas. This is the system in which they use
seawater and chemicals to remove unessential part from the engine gas. This uses a chamical
response to alter the Sox that is present in the gas. This system can be include in the new ships
and in existing vessles. They generally regard as an effective and effective short term investment
to follow with new governance. This is the cheaper and long term usable system in the company
according to (Baltic and international maritime council)BIMCO. Some shipping organizations
have the negative impact of this scrubber system. This system can give risk for some shipping
organizations while Royal caribbean has used this types of scrubber and claimed that they show
great promise, other chip owners see scrubbers as unsatisfied technology. They state that this
technology is not suitable for existing system. Swedish consultancy give some points that price
of the is system is varied from high to low. SWECO predicts that the adoption of the new
technology will be postpone until 2015, because this technology is more trustworthy to improve
the services and reduce the financial cost. This is not perfect solutions for all the vessels but they
can use this system in either wet or dry. Wet scrubber can further classify into three types such as
loop, open loop or hybrid. Wet and dry scrubber has different types of characteristics such as wet
scrubber uses sea water or fresh water and further specification depends on its waste disposal
30

methods whereas dry scrubber uses calcium hydroxide. Scrubber is the best way for decrease the
air pollution and none of the scrubber are recommended for tugboats due to their small size. Wet
type of scrubber has low cost as compared to other scrubber.
Overview of discharge deduction capabilities of 5 scrubber solutions is given in Appendix 2
Illustration 14: Sox scrubber
Source: Sustainalytics 2013
4.5.7 Low-sulphur fuel
Other option for shipping organizations to deduct the sulphur discharge would be the
option for low-sulphur engine. This type of fuel is contains sulphur content that is much lower
than the massive fuel which has 4.5% sulphur content. As compared to scrubber and LNG, low-
sulphur engine costs are considered as negotiable because most of the vessels can run on both
heavy fuel. The low-sulphur fuel is the best solution of cost investment. The cost of refining
engine and convert it into the low-sulphur fuel that represents an efficient cost for all fuel
organizations. These operational and financial cost will definitely pass in the shipping industry.
Price would be high approx by 87%. This fuel is too expensive that cause high transportation
mods for some products. Rail and road transportation can be more beneficial from these changes.
The impact can be high for short sea shipping from governance.
LNG is the other technology that is used by all shipping firms to follow with non-GHG
governance. This solution is most effective and economically this factor analysed by the
31

Norwegian maritime consultant. DNV predicts the cost of he innovate vessel is high and LNG
need more investment between 10% and 50%. Lioyd's states that in which they have high burn
ability and morbidity. UK fleet is not suitable for LNG due to its age and they have less power
supply chain. SWECO also determines they have deficiency of infrastructure for LNG. The most
developed appropriate connection of LNG ships and LNG bunkering is in nowary, and they have
flagged of 22 or 23 LNG ships manipulating in SECAs. This networks include only small scale
supply at LNG bunkers.
LNG has good social, economical and environmental benefits. The LNG burning is no
Sox, Nox and PM discharges. They also have higher hydrogen to carbon ratio which create it less
CO as compared to oil. As compared to other rules the combustion of LNG emits significant
amount of another GHG: methane. Methane has the strong and high global warming potential.
4.5 Others
Innovate governance on shipping discharge could trigger an increment in demand for
some of organization that is not classified in the previous parts. There are many companies that
have benefit from that these are fuel and lubricant. These firms can take benefit from new
governance policies.
Initial phase of compliance with the new sulphur fuel regulations that will lead to
increment in fuel price. Fuel provider such as Petrobras, shell, and BP. They provide low-sulphur
fuel for marine use and they can also take benefit from the increase in demand. Singapore claims
Petobras that will supply low-sulphur render while fuel in panama will be supplied by OW
bunker.
Lubrication is the main cause in changing from high to low-sulphur fuels. BN oils are
used for high sulphur fuels. Low BN is very effective for a ship engine when they used low-
sulphur fuel. Lubmarine attribute a 90% increment in sale to the fact its fuel worked with low-
sulphur fuels. Shipping industry can get more benefit if they used LNG in the company. Gasnor
is the biggest marfket leader of small scale LNG in Norway and they developed good and
effective LNG market in the word. Shell is followed by the Exxonnmoli as the objective of LNG
manufacturing company in the world.
4.6 Conclusion
The government provides effective and efficient policies and strategies to reduce the
financial and operational cost. They also provide GHG discharge to reduce the cost. The
32

government also give appropriate implementation plan for the company. This involves various
steps to apply strategies in the firm. Shipping companies has the profit because they use cap and
trade schemes. IMO and EU provides various transmission standards that is based on the national
legislation. They provide lows and policies to implement the technologies to reduce the financial
and operational cost. In Singapore and Hong Kong they follow discharge governance policies
that is provided by the government.
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS IN WEST AFRICA AND DISCHARGE
CONTROL FIELD IF THIS POSSIBLE FOR WEST AFRICA
5.1 Overview of Annex VI of MARPOL
In 2005 they discussed in meetings that IMO decided to reduce sulphur discharge. United
nations conference on the HE in Stockholm they decided to made effort to better natural process
through international cooperation. This is followed by convention on long range trans boundary
air impurity which is taken by in Geneva in 1979. There are many legal protocols have been
agreed to control the discharge and deduct the rate of fuel in 19858 and 1994, controlling
discharge of nitrogen oxides in 1988 and control discharge of the volatile integrated compounds
in 1991.
In the regional forum, the second international conference on the protection of north sea
was held in London, 24-25 November 1987. That was attended by the minister from 8 countries
and those are responsible for the protection of the north sea. This conference is held because they
can easily get the guideline and standards to protect them. They can easily give contribution to
improve the quality of heavy fuel regulations and to decrease impurity in the international
bodies. The declaration is considerable to solve pollution problems into the maritime
environment protection committee towards the protocol of MARPOLin 1997, which entered into
the force on may 19, 2005. As at 31 July 2009, around 56 countries representing over 83% of the
world biggest tonnage have become parties to MARPOL protocol 1997 annex VI (IMO, 2009).
5.2 Discharge control area
5.2.1 Overview of discharge control area
The IMO member provides the low quality of strong and heavy fuel in connection with
high sulphur content of fuel onboard ships. This low quality of the fuel producing the gases and
fume like as Sox that will lead to acid rain. Most common technique to reduce the acid rain
33

effects of to convert higher and stronger sulphur fuel to the lower fuel oil. This is the best way to
reduce the affect of acid rain in the product.
Two topics were raised at the time of MEPC meetings which were the various fields of
emissions of sulphur control and the amount of it which is to be minimized in the specific areas.
A wider coverage of the control over sulphur emissions has been seen in various countries such
as Finland, Russia, Sweden and Poland, but in these cases as well, because of the availability of
low sulphur fuel, the higher amount of de sulphurisation of the fuel and the subsequent economic
implications, the outcomes of the sulphur control all over were quite high.
Under the endowment of the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM), it was requested by the
commission as it is an obvious fact that on a wholly basis, the sulphur control cannot be
undertaken. Under the new Annex VI, it is not only for the ships from contracting parties of
HELCOM, it is to be undertaken for all the member states of the IMO. A specialised field by the
53rd session of the MEPC was issues in which it was clearly termed that the SOx emission
control area (SECA) has set the content of sulphur in the fuel which is about a maximum of
1.50%.
The sulphur cap inside the SECA has developed law of discrimination which considers
the disadvantages of it economically. More strict regulations should be complied by the ship
owners which may be not applied by the competitors in some other parts of the world. This,
however helps in bringing the comparative disadvantages financially in consideration with the
voyage cost. Global limitation of the content of sulphur present in the fuel oil has been made
available by the various exponents of the fields of the sulphur control. Instead of a long
conference, it was decided that the amount of sulphur to be present in the fuel will not be above
4.50%. After this contract, it also came as a controversy as the amount set was still higher than
the average content of sulphur present in the fuel. Although, it was accepted at an extent as the
value was under the maximum value of the sulphur content in the fuel, which is 5 %. This all
was done in concern with the International Standard Organisation (ISO) 8217 specification.
5.2.2 Emission Control Area (ECA) Criteria
According to the current Annexure VI, various parties have provided some fields of
coastal waters as SECA for minimizing the emissions from Sox. SECA has generated a proposal
in which it included six criterias. The biggest criteria was over the geographical area of the
34

emission control of Sox, impact of it on the land and water. An evaluation has been done for the
meteorological condition of it and the traffic density of the ship.
An area that has been specialised cannot be applicable for the Sox emissions as the MEPC on the
58th session generated a criteria that all the three emissions as NOx, Sox and PM will be
restricted in some specific areas and it was started from 2010. Out of three, NOx and PM
emissions were already involved in some designated area. So, Emission control Area (ECA) has
been introduced as the right terminology for involving all the other emissions excep the Sox
emissions.
The annexure VI had an amendment that the party have to meet the 8th criteria but now
the requirement of Annexure VI is that it needs six criteria. For this concept,, new two concepts
of ECA cover emission type(s) which have been introduced by the ECA and minimization of the
cost of emissions from Sox, NOx etc and from the economic impact on the international
shipping. According to the new rules and regulations, the ECA has been enabled for limiting the
SOx or NOx or PM and all three types of emissions. The latter criterion concerns the economic
feasibility of the regulation. It was the need of the rules and regulations that it can be used by
various economic impact analysis (Mukherje & Xu, 2008). The reason behind it was that its
introduction will be involving some more additional cost to the industries.
If seen economically, the advantages to the cost analysis are a better option for the
identification of the effectiveness of upcoming regulation. However, it should be confirmed that
the the benefit of the new features for the checking of air quality increases the cost of emission
reduction just to make sure that these criterias are correct for the implementation process. Out of
the whole, the left out of the ECA criteria involved all the additional emissions other than SOx. .
It can be well explained with an example. One of the process is emphasising the whole
population of the human and second is involving the whole description of the environmental
risks on the part of shipping emission. The overall population is restricted by the effect of PM
on the population, who already live in coastal areas and suffers from PM that has been
introduced by ships. Furthermore, the environment is an very efficient technology for the
replacement of the land and water in the current SECA criteria.
5.2.3. The Baltic and North Sea SECA
35

The first sea that has been designated by the SECA in MAPROL protocol 1997 was the
Baltic Sea. This was because it restricted the utilization of the content of sulphur which was
about 1.5% in the year 2006. Similar standards were introduced in 1994 and was specially for the
northern Seabut it came into power from 2007. Some exhausting gas systems were also involved
in the whole process which limited the rate of emissions by a huge extent. The SECA and the
MAPROL had a same enforcement for the pollution of the oils, thus causing the maximized rate
of emissions which were declining the basic rules and was introduced as violations.
By the International convention, according to the Annexure 1, which represented the
prevention and cure for the various pollutions from the ships (MARPOL 73/78) (2006, p. 47),
Along with the Gulf of Finland and of the Bothia, the Baltic sea was allover bounded by the
Parallels of the Skaw and Skagerrak. The northern sea has already been defined well in the
Annexure V.
As the sea was already bounded by these Skaws, it was introduced as the one with a
latitude of 57o44’.8 N by one of an English channel which approached a longitude of 5oW for
east and 48o30’ N for north parts.
Illustration 15: The SECA delineation of the Baltic and the North Sea
5.2.3.1. Relevant SOx emission regulations
In the year 2006, an essential standard has been introduced by the European Union as the
Baltic Sea and from 2007, the northern sea is being considered. Some dates were concerned by
36

the SECAs within the Directive and the IMO and it cannot be assigned as the nature and the time
of various legislative processes which also had the involvement of the Union. .One of a new rule
has been introduced for the usage of the emissions from the ships which involved sulphur fuel as
well. An additional part was also mitigated from the year 2010 which has the berths in the
harbours. This criteria was generated even for the ships that has a consumption of less fuels. The
criteria also directed from 2010 which has in it the consumption of sulphur limited and the sue of
vessels which carried two special types of fuel on the basis of their operation and utilization.
There was an issue which has been raised in the trading of the ships and it had a dual
system of the lubrication complexity and the segreagation of the tank. It also had an implication
regarding the condition of the engine and the various operations on the change over. Another
huge problem was the cost of the fuel of sulphur that was also essential for the ships to acrry out
their processes. It was estimated that the arte of these emissions will maximize.
The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) analysed that the
marginal cost which was linked with the emissions of SO2 reduction (0.5 euro per kg SO2) for
ships that were operating in the North Sea was also compared with land based sources (1.5 euro
per kg SO2) (as cited in IMO, 1999, p.8). It created a fact that the reduction of SO2 emissions in
shipping was relatively lesser than the land based ones. This is was to ensure the fact that the
overall cost of fuel has a huge impact on the operational costs and the other shipping operations.
It also helped in the overall reduction in sulphur so, the scheme under SECA was proved quite
reasonable.
5.2.3.3. The Benefit of the Baltic and the North Sea SECA
According to the statistics , it was proved that the increase in SOx emissions within SECA
both in the Baltic and the North Sea (Figure 3.2). As per the IMO (2009c, p.58), emissions of
SOx from shipping in the SECA had been minimized for about about 42%, which considered it
for about 700 kilotonnes, in 2008 when the SECA regime was already applied effectively. In the
year 2010, it increased up to 800 kilotonnes (CONCAWE, 2006). Two figures show there will
be an increase in the amount of SOx emissions over two years, despite the fact that Annex VI is
fully in force
37

Illustration 16: The estimation of SOx emissions within the Baltic and
the North Sea SECA
Source: The SOx emissions in 2008: International Maritime Organization. (2009, April 9).
Second IMO GHG Study 2009 Update of the 2000 IMO GHG Study Final report covering Phase
1 and Phase.
5.2.4. The forthcoming ECA: US and Canadian Waters
After, both the countries, The US and Canada worked together since 2006 , they
formulate a plan which involved features to submit the ECA proposal to IMO in March 2009.
This plan is designed to comply with the requirement of the ECA criteria of Annex VI. In this , it
considers SOx, NOx and PM at once from the ocean going ships operating within 200 nm from
the coastal baselines of US and Canada. After the measures has been taken by the ECA, it has
covered a large portion of the EEZ of the US and Canada except the fact that it would not
enlarged into marine areas which subjected to the sovereignty, sovereign rights or jurisdiction of
any state other than US and Canada (EPA, 2009b, p.2).
38

Illustration 17: The ECA delineation of EEZ US and Canada
Source: EPA. (2009b). Proposal of Emissions Control Area Designation for Geographic Control
of Emissions from Ships.
5.2.4.1. Relevant NOx, SOx and PM emission regulations
In the year 2008, EPA has introduced very strict regulations and standards for minimizing
the reduction of NOx and PM emissions from these all marine diesel engines below 30 litres per
cylinder displacement (category 1 and category 2). This standard came into force on July, 7
2008. It was expected for minimizing the NOx emissions as for about 80% and PM emissions by
as much as 90% when was fully implemented (EPA, 2009c).
In the year 2003, EPA had introduced a tier 1 standard for category 3 (marine diesel
engines above 30 litres per cylinder displacement) for reduction of the NOx emissions from
vessels of the ocean going. The tier 1 of EPA standard was equal to the rules and regulation
13(3)(a) of Annex VI. When a part of it has been proposed by the ECA designation, an issued
has already been there in which a plan to provide more stringent reduction standard for NOx (tier
2 and tier 3 standard), PM and SOx emissions through various technologies and because of low
sulphur content in the fuel. New regulation has been expected which had to be finalized in
December 2009.
In the year 2005, the State of California had adopted the regulations and rules of SOx,
NOx and PM emission reduction in auxiliary diesel engines and diesel-electric engines in ocean
39

going vessels within 24 nautical miles of the Californian coastline. The regulation imposes the
use of 0.50% sulphur fuel oil or other equal emission controls. The standard has been amended
several times to reduce sulphur content in the fuel gradually (Appendix D) . In the case of
Canada, a provision regarding emissions from ocean going vessels exists especially for cruise
ships since 2005, namely the Pollution Prevention Guidelines for the Operation of Cruise Ships
under Canadian Jurisdiction. It only regulates the sulphur content in the fuel, emissions from
incinerators and halocarbons. In addition, the Canadian Act only addresses the emissions of
black smoke in Canadian waters and within 1 mile of land (Appendix E).
5.2.4.2. The impact of ECA on the ship operations
ECA has been introduced by the member states of IMO, the countries should follow the
IMO scheme to downgrade the sulphur content in fuel gradually until 2020. Consequently, the
availability of LSFO has become a major issue in the implementation of ECA. For this purpose,
EPA confirms LSFO (1.00%) available within the US ECA (Scott & Sinnamon, 2009, p.2).
Therefore, Canada should also be able to provide adequate LSFO in the ports in its territorial
waters. Since the scheme requires more stringent control of sulphur content in fuel to 0.10%
from 2015, the projection of fuel consumption by 2020 is necessary to warn oil refinery
industries concerning the high demand of low sulphur fuel.
Table 3-1. The total cost of compliant SOx and NOx emission regulation
Source: International Maritime Organization. (2009a, March 27)
5.2.4.3. The Benefit of US and Canadian Waters ECA
There are various factors which can help in analysing the benefits that are provided by the
ECA such as the amount of minimized emission , the cost effectiveness and the quality standards
40

of human health. In 2020, the ECA can reduce approximately 294,000 metric tonnes of NOx,
85,400 tonnes of PM2.5 and 834,000 tonnes of SOx (IMO, 2009b). Cleaner fuel, additional
tanks and abatement technologies are considered some measures that can help in a potential
reduction. Although this estimation is conducted within the ECA of the US, effectiveness of cost
in Canada can also be considered under the same measures. Furthermore, the cost effectiveness
of ship emissions outweighs land based sources.
The cost effectiveness of SOx can be considered as lesser than the other forms of
emissions, though the amount of SOx emission reduction is the largest ones. In contrary, PM2.5
acts in the opposite pattern. It is a well representation of the reduction of PM2.5 emissions
which has not achieved the outcomes yet. Furthermore, there is no dedicated statement
technology for the minimization of the PM2.5 emissions except using lower sulphur fuel.
Moreover, the amended Annex VI has not yet determined the allowable limit of PM2.5
emissions from ships. Consequently, the development of the minimization of PM2.5
technologies have been used as a help for these preventive measures. In the efforts to reduce
PM2.5 emissions, ECA implementation will save 8,300 lives and over three million people will
recover from respiratory symptoms annually in the US while the monetized health related benefit
is estimated as much as US$ 60 billion in the U.S. in 2020 (EPA, 2009b, p.6).
The implementation system by the ECA needs NOx, SOX and PM emission reduction.
Thus, this research focuses on various techniques to minimize the amount of SOX emissions,
considering the emissions of SOX as one of the major issue of acidification and SOX emissions
from ships was the largest pollutant which has been evaluated with the other means of transport
in the year 2000. Various efforts for the minimization of SOX emissions from the ships are
discussed below :
41

5.3 Methods for SOx reduction
AS per the fourth regulation of the Annexure, various methods for the minimization of
emission of SOx emission, which is also considered as the low sulphur fuel, along with it, it
considers the technological methods and the exhaust gas cleaning systems. Although there are
various methods for the reduction of these emissions, but three were aimed for excluding the
acidification from the acid rain. This is being done by limiting the amount of sulphur in the fuel,
thus minimizing the overall emissions of sulphur oxide from the ships. Some of the methods are
discusses as below :
5.3.1 Low Sulphur Fuel Oil ( LSFO)
Annex V has already provided the maximum content of sulphur or any fuel that is being
used in the ships, whether it is outside or within the ECA. According to it, the content should not
exceed 1.50% of the sulphur content in the fuel to be used. It reduced to a huge extent from
0.1.% in the statistics of year 2015. AS per the figure 3.4, the sulphur cap content will be set to
similar for the limit of sulphur within the ECA in the year 2020. In a large gap of 14 years, that is
from 1996 to 2020, an adequate amount of time has been given to the ships and the authorities
along with the oil refineries and essential parties which are required for the minimization of the
emissions from the root causes. The same target can be achieved with the help of availability of
distillate fuel oil in the environment. A review with a target of ebing achieved till 2018 has
already been prepared. In this, the demand for the fuel oil and its average market supply has been
fixed to an extent that seems suitable for the ship and the authorities.
42

Source : various sources of IMO documents
5.3.2 Exhaust gas cleaning systems
An alternate method by which the reduction can be achieved is termed as the exhaust gas
cleaning systems. It focuses on the minimization of it from the propulsion and the auxiliary
engines for about 6.0g or less. Sulphur oxide emissions can be termed as the main outcomes.
Scrubber can be categorised as the only system that can efficiently work for exhaust of gas
cleaning. It is also divided into two of its sub parts which are called as seawater scrubber and the
fresh water scrubber. The generation and development for the scrubber technology has been
introduced as the one which can be able and relevant to complete the requirements of the
guidelines of the MO.
5.3.2.1 Sea water scrubber
It makes the use of alkaline water of a low concentration and it is being used for the
absorption of the exhaust gases in the engines. A proper filtration is being done of the water in
which the particles are separated for the disposal of it in a setting tank. After that, the water is
again send to the sea. The efficiency of the sea water scrubber considers the overall flow of the
sea water. A wide amount of the sea water behaves as a benefit of this scrubber which can prove
helpful.
43
Illustration 18: ECA nd global sulphur cap redction progress from 2006 - 2020

5.3.2.2 Fresh Water Scrubber
A wide range of additional chemicals have been used in the fresh water scrubber system
which helps in neutralising the exhaust gas which includes the caustic soda (NaOH). The
mechanism of it acts the same way as of the sea water scrubber but the difference in that, caustic
soda is being inserted to the exhaust gas which is present inside the system. As per Henriksson
(2007, p.57), the efficiency of it in cleaning goes quite higher than 90% and relies on the
engine's consumption of overall low sulphur fuel. An example of this can eb considered as the
utilization of 0.10% of the sulphur fuel which helps in excluding the emissions from SOx by
97%.
This scrubber acts as a better option for all the ships that are being operated in the Baltic
Sea. The reason behind this is the lower availability of the salinity in this sea. Although the
whole system of the scrubber can also get activated without sending out the washing water on the
boards. There are various components that requires the storage onboard and it involves caustic
soda, washing water and the fresh water. The on going ships have a difficulty in searching for
these products within the limited scale of the ships.
44
Illustration 19: Principle diagram of sea water scrubbing
(SWS) process

Source : Henriksson, T. (2006)
Conclusion
The SECA has restricted the content of sulphut by 1.50% but the recent studies show that
the sulphur cap globally is present as 4.50%. In the Baltic as well the northern Sea SECA, this
level is being contributed. The commitments of both the sea seems much promising which
considers and mainly focuses on the lower level of impacts of these emissions from the ships.
The same scheme is being used by the US and Canada after the proposal of an ECA submission
which has been done in the year 2009. It was all done to limit the SOx, NOx and the PM within
the EEZ and it has included a huge amount of benefits which can be sufficient enough to cover
up most of the limitations.
In the year 2020, it is estimated that the amount of sulphur on an overall basis will be hopefully
reduced to 0.10% to 0.50%. After that the need of ECA may also be get limited as the amount of
the sulphur fuel will be limited till that time. The sulphur cap can erase some disadvantages of it
in consideration with the economy for various shipping operations. However, other ship issues
can also be get minimized if the two activities will be followed specifically. These two includes
the quality of the fuel that is being supplied onboard and the minimization of the sulphur oxide
from the ships.
45
Illustration 20: Principle diagram of freshwater scrubbing (FWS)
process

Out of all the methods, it was discussed above that three of these methods were taken into
consideration which were low sulphur fuel, exhaust gas cleaning systems and new technologies
for exhausting gas cleaning systems. These methods are as well appreciated by the economic
increments and various incentives with the help of fairway, trading of emission and the port
dues. They act enough helpful for motivating and encouraging the ship owners to go for these
regulations for the emissions.
Minimization of the amount of sulphur in the fuel oil will be a helpful method for the
reduction of these emissions from the ships. Instead, it produces various issues along with it as
well, such as the change over methods, presence of lower level of sulphur fuel and the less
compatibility of the lubrication oil. Scrubbers can also act as the best option for reduction of SOx
if the method can be completely installed in the ships. Utilization of these scrubbers can also
help in excluding the whole system of the problems through various emissions of the marine like
the wash water that is being discharged from the scrubbers contributes to ocean acidification.
As the standards for emissions for NOx, it has not been yet developed by the IMO which
included the next steps that has to been taken after the tier III. However, It is expected by the
help of IMO to set a content for the PM emissions and also in a wider planning of the reductions
in emissions of NOx in consideration with the upcoming regulations.
46

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