Leadership Theories and Practices

This assignment delves into the realm of leadership theories and their practical applications. Students are tasked with examining different perspectives on leadership, such as empowering leadership, sustainable leadership practices, and the influence of total quality management on organizational performance. The analysis should encompass both theoretical foundations and real-world examples.

Principles and Practices of Leadership and
Management

Executive Summary
The process of leadership is all about influencing as well as guiding people so as to meet the
stipulated goals and objectives. Leaders are people who influence others to perform their roles
and responsibilities effectively. In this regard, there is a presence of varied theories that are
related to leadership. These are inclusive of contingency leadership theory, trait theory of
leadership, situational leadership, etc. In this regard, the current report has focused on
contingency as well as trait leadership theory. The report concluded that organization
management has to face different types of situations and accordingly they have to make instant
decision so as to overcome the issue in terms of contingency theory. On the other hand,
according to trait theory, leaders are born and cannot be developed. It is further recommended
that the firms should use contingency theory of leadership as it would be helpful in making
decisions according to situations.

1. Introduction paragraph
Leadership can be defined as a process of influencing people. Most common thing among
leaders is that they have followers who follow all the orders provided by them. On a contrary, if
there are no followers, then one cannot be a leader. In this respect, the present essay has thus
given emphasis on contingency and trait theory of leadership. There has been a comparison of
both the theories of leadership on the basis of definition. Historical perspective of and trait
theories of leadership has also been given. This is followed by critically analysing the advantages
of contingency theories and contradicting it with the advantage of trait theories. Same concept
has also been followed in limitation aspect of both the theories. Other than the usefulness of
contingency as well as trait theories in different aspects in organisations have also been analysed.
The essay has concluded with highlight key findings.
Trait theory: lecture notes week 2.
Kotter (1990), Zaccaro,
Kirkpatrick& Edwin,
Zaleznik (1977),
Leadership evolution Daft (2008),
French & Raven (1959)
Contingency Theory: lecture notes week 3.
Blake & Mouton's Managerial Leadership Grid (1960),
Fiedler,
Paul Hersey,
Path-Goal Theory,
Vroom-Jago
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2. Define and compare contingency theories of leadership and trait theories of leadership.
Different authors have stated leadership differently. Among which according to Kotter,
1990 “functions of management and leadership are different. Leadership provides movement and
change. On the other hand, management provides consistency and order to the firm”. However,
Kirkpatrick and Edwin stated that “leadership does not depend upon certain characteristic but to
have effective leadership certain traits are essential”. Traits like energy, motivation,
achievement, tenacity, integrity, creativity, vision, etc. are very important for a leader.
As per Paul Hersey “effective leadership is possible only, when they learn from their tasks”. In
other words, leaders not only get influenced with the group or person but it also depends upon
the tasks or functions which they need to fulfil. On the other hand, Vroom and Jago, 1988 stated
that “leadership depends upon different situations they face”. Leadership will be effective only
when he/she manages his followers or team to make them capable enough to handle situations.
According to Zaleznik, 1977 “leaders and managers are different as leaders are much more
common to creative thinker, scientists or artists”.
Following are the two types of leadership theories stated by different authors:
Contingency theory of leadership: According to this theory one thing depends upon the other
thing. As per Kim, Kumar and Kumar, 2012 “there are two types of leaders involved in this
leadership theory which are influencers and motivators” (Kim, Kumar and Kumar, 2012).
However, both the leaders in this theory have their own way of attitude towards giving orders to
their followers (Gardner and Overhage, 2009). In addition to this there are different approaches
and models given like according to approach to contingency, it seeks to identify the
characteristic followers and situations, then it evaluates the leadership which could be used in
order to have effectiveness. Similarly, Fiedler developed a model which helped in knowing
whether the leader would take risk or will he/she be able to use effective leadership style
according to the situation.
Path-Goal Theory is a type of contingency approach under which leaders are responsible for
increasing motivational level by making understand their followers roles and responsibilities or
providing rewards according to their performance.
Trait theories of leadership: According to Suter, Oelke and Armitage, 2009 “this theory is
determined on the basis of different characteristic of leaders” (Suter, Oelke and Armitage, 2009).
The theory thus helps to distinguish among non-leaders and leaders. However, McKenna,
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Rooney and Boal, 2009 stated that “leaders are born not made” (McKenna, Rooney and Boal,
2009). There are also authors like Ou, Liu and Yen, 2010 who believe that “leaders are made not
born” (Ou, Liu and Yen, 2010).
Comparison: According to Snell and Bohlander, 2010 “both contingency and trait theory are
ways through which leadership is analysed” (Snell and Bohlander, 2010). However, both are
different in many aspects. Contingency theories provide different variable or ways for particular
situation. On the other hand, trait theory takes immediate decision in order to solve the issue or
problem. Further, trait theory helps in motivating and encourages employees to face difficult
situations (Talib, Rahman and Qureshi, 2011). In addition to this, one of the main difference
among them both is that trait focuses on the leader's focuses on the circumstances of
surrounding. But contingency depends upon the situation which individuals face as it helps in
developing understanding and skills related to leadership.
As per McKenna, Rooney and Boal, 2009 “contingency theory leadership emerges when
different people face different types of situations which develop their qualities” (McKenna,
Rooney and Boal, 2009). On the other hand, according to Suter, Oelke and Armitage, 2009 “in
trait theory leaders are born with leadership skills and they make use of these skills according to
the circumstances they face” (Suter, Oelke and Armitage, 2009). There have always been issues
among researchers, whether leaders are born leaders or are made. In other words, it can be
determined set of characteristic of people because of which they stand different form others.
Snell and Bohlander, 2010 “different individuals possess different characteristic” (Snell and
Bohlander, 2010). On the contrary, there would be individuals with good and bad characteristic,
in both case these individuals are remembered. But in contingency theory leadership skills are
developed when individuals face different situation and accordingly they understand their
capabilities and work on it to enhance it.
3. Briefly describe the historical perspective of contingency theories of leadership and trait
theories of leadership.
Historical perspective of Trait Theory: Thomas Carlyle in 1804 proposed Great man theory.
According to this theory, qualities which determines an individual to lead is something which is
in born and it cannot be thought or developed. This study started on focusing on the difference
between followers and leaders. It was based on the assumption that the leader would show
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his/her leadership traits when compared with subordinates (Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991). In the
research it was found that all the individuals who supported leadership traits did not prove to be a
great leader.
In 1948, similar research was done by Ralph Melvin Stogdill's who stated “the reason of
becoming a great leader is that of the interaction which he/she has with others and because of
different types of situation which arise”. On the other hand, it was also found that there were
leaders who used their intellectual and knowledge and skills which were possessed from their
parents (Avolio, Walumbwa and Weber, 2009).
In 1974, Stodgills made further research and stated that both situational and traits
contribute to leadership. Further, according to Beebe and Masterson, 2009 “even motivation
plays vital role in developing leadership”. Individuals who get influence by other leaders try to
learn and develop their skills accordingly (Beebe and Masterson, 2009). Further, Stodgills
identified different leadership traits which influence appearance, knowledge, intelligence, social
skills, responsibility and emotional control. On the other hand, a research held by Barry Z Posner
and James M. Kouzes in 1980, they conducted a survey from about 1500 managers and focused
on finding out good leadership traits which helps their employees to work effectively. According
to research it was found that there were four traits which were being inspiring, competent, hones
and looking forward. According to trait theory of leadership, there are many traits with the help
of which leaders achieve their goals and objectives.
Historical perspective of Contingency theory:
There are many changes which took place in these years among which following are the
common changes or the different types of leaders which are involved in Contingency theory:
1. Consideration leaders: These types of leaders focus on developing relationship with the
subordinates and understand their skills and accordingly they provide them tasks. According to
Sage and Rouse, 2009 “developing interpersonal relationship with members help in sharing issue
and problems. It also helps in improving their performance level” (Sage and Rouse, 2009).
2. Initiating leaders: These type of leaders believe in developing plans, assign roles and
scheduling duties so that they could achieve the organizational goals and objectives.
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Stahl, Björkman and Wright, 2012 stated that “contingency is a type of situation which occurs
when a plan fails. Problems or issues arise when things do not work out according to what had
been planned” (Stahl, Björkman and Wright, 2012). In such situations leaders take initiative to
develop substitute plan with the help of which they solve the problems. In other words,
contingency can be determined as instant thinking done to take appropriate decision to solve the
any kind of issue when planned thing do not work out.
There is a model given by Fred Fiedler in the year 1967, According to Fiedler, 1967
“there are different types of leadership styles which can be followed leaders”. However, all styles
have their own merit and demerits. On the contrary, effectiveness of any leadership style depends
upon the situation (Zhang and Bartol, 2010). It can be determined into two factors which are
'leadership style' and 'situational favourableness'.
Below given illustration will be helpful in knowing the evaluation of leadership. It is described in
four eras from Great person leadership to learning leadership.
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Leadership evaluation draft begins from evaluation of Great man theory and Trait theory which
states that leaders are born not made (Era 1). Then it comes Era 2 which is called Rational
management and this includes theories like behavioural theory and contingency theory. Third era
is called Lateral leadership which includes influence theory. Lastly, in era 4 is learning
leadership which includes relational theories and level 5 leadership.
4. Critically analyse advantages of contingency theories in contrast with traits theory
Advantage of contingency theory: According to Kouzes and Posner, 2010 “Contingency
theory is determined as a reliable approach and has survived over the decades” (Kouzes and
Posner, 2010). However, Sage and Rouse, 2009 has stated that “it has an effective leadership
approach as it has grounded in empirical research” (Sage and Rouse, 2009).
This theory has enhanced the understanding of leadership scope in which it focuses on the best
way through which employees could be controlled or directed.
As per Stahl, Björkman and Wright, 2012 “contingency theory has proved to have predictive
powers in focusing on the leadership types which determines the best style in particular context”
(Stahl, Björkman and Wright, 2012). On the other hand, Zhang and Bartol, 2010 stated that
“leaders should be considered to be effective in all situations as organization should understand
the skills and capabilities which leaders possess” (Zhang and Bartol, 2010).
Most importantly this theory provide organization with data regarding the leadership style which
enables to develop leadership profile related to human resource planning (Kotter, 1990).
Trait theory: According to Crevani, Lindgren and Packendorff, 2010 “lot of researchers have
conducted different research on it and has ensured the validity over it” (Crevani, Lindgren and
Packendorff, 2010).
As per Avery and Bergsteiner, 2011 “trait theory provides a yardstick towards the leadership
traits with the help of which assessment of individuals is possible” (Avery and Bergsteiner,
2011).
It is very essential for the employees to see their leaders to be extraordinary and creative. In this
context, trait theory develops confidence and trust among workers towards their leaders (Avery
and Bergsteiner, 2011). In addition to this, trait theory develops benchmarks which is required
for a person to be a leader.
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5. Critically analyse limitations of contingency theories in contrast with trait theories
Limitations of Contingency theory: It is very complex as leaders have to make decisions
depending upon the situation. In order to take managerial decisions, it is very essential for them
to have proper analysis but because of short to time leaders fail to conduct to have proper
examination of situation.
According to Stahl, Björkman and Wright, 2012 “leaders make decisions based on the
knowledge and understanding, there are cases in which they fail to take appropriate decisions
because of lack in understand and knowledge towards the situation occurred” (Stahl, Björkman
and Wright, 2012).
Limitations of Trail theory: As per Zhang and Bartol, 2010 “organization sometimes conduct a
poor prediction of identifying the effective leaders” (Zhang and Bartol, 2010). This creates an
issue in proper coordination and in completing the tasks on time or in solving any issue.
It is very important for the firm to have a proper system in order to evaluate individual behaviour
and in select the best person for leading employees (Crevani, Lindgren and Packendorff, 2010).
Issues arises when management fail to maintain the system effectively.
6. Critically analyse usefulness of contingency theories of leadership or trait theories in
different aspects in organisations
CONTINGENCY THEORY: Giber, Lam and Bourke, 2009 stated that “contingency
theory is helpful in know the perspective of each member towards their leaders. But there would
be members who would not take it seriously and provide rating without even reading it” (Giber,
Lam and Bourke, 2009). This creates issues in know the actual perception of followers on their
leaders.
It helps in identifying leaders in a group easily. There are eight scales on the basis of which they
could easily identify leaders effectively. However, all the areas through which skills are not
covered in this model. There are many skills and qualities which a leader should possess and
through this model effective leader cannot be determined.
This model can only be used by those members who know all the other members in a team.
However, those employees who are new and do not know other members cannot rate properly as
they got not idea regarding other members in the team (Talib, Rahman and Qureshi, 2011).
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It is very helpful in know the relationship among leaders and members. But there would be
workers who would not be having any kind of attitude towards developing relationship with
anyone. In such situation it becomes difficult for contingency theory to understand their
followers effectively.
TRAIT THEORY: Task competence: As per Herman, 2011 “leaders are capable of
understanding and performing any job effectively” (Herman, 2011). Further, they possess skills
and capabilities with the help of which they understand the given task and provide proper
guidance to their followers through which they achieve desired goals and objectives.
Confidence: Wells, Schwinghammer and Dipiro, 2010 stated that “leaders are assured of what
they do”. They understand their employee’s capabilities and accordingly provide them task
(Wells, Schwinghammer and Dipiro, 2010). As per Kouzes and Posner, 2010 “ if the leader is
confident enough then followers develop trust towards the directions given by them” (Kouzes
and Posner, 2010).
Decisiveness: According to Kim, Kumar and Kumar, 2012 “leader use their intellectual skills to
make decision. They understand the situation and make decision accordingly” (Kim, Kumar and
Kumar, 2012). However, followers develop confidence among the decision taken and
accordingly make changes so as to solve the issues or problem (Blake and Mouton's, 1960).
Flexibility and adaptability: In an organization changes takes place frequently and it is not easy
to adapt to change easily and in making other accept the change. Gardner and Overhage, 2009
stated that “leaders are flexible enough to adapt change easily. They realize the importance of
change and prepare their follower so that they could understand the requirement of change”
(Gardner and Overhage, 2009).
As per Sage and Rouse, 2009 “personal qualities which a person possess has an effect on
leadership. For example, Mother Teresa, Lincoln, etc. they both were effective leaders but with
totally different qualities” (Sage and Rouse, 2009). Both traits and situation are very helpful in
developing leadership qualities. In addition to this, motivating also help in developing skills and
in enhancing the performance. Motivation from different leaders helps in developing abilities
and skills through which job become easy (French and Raven, 1959).
7. Conclusion
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Thus, it can be concluded that both theories have their own importance and organization could
make use of both theories according to their requirement and situations. With the study of both
theories, that is contingent and trait theory of leadership, the best one would be contingent
leadership theory. In an organization, different types of situations have to be handled and in
order to solve them instant decision has to be taken. There are different models given by
different authors, among which taking questionnaire from a group would be helpful in know the
leadership qualities which would possess among the group members. As it was discussed,
different people have set of skills and qualities, so would be developed and some would be in
born qualities. All these qualities and skills contribute effectively in leading followers.
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