Project Management Literature Review

This assignment requires students to analyze a collection of articles and books related to project management. The provided references include a mix of academic journals, books, and online resources. Students are expected to carefully read each reference, identify key concepts, and understand how they contribute to the broader field of project management. The assignment also mentions specific topics such as earned value project management, building information modeling, and successful project portfolio management. Students may be asked to write a literature review or provide a summary of the key findings from the references. This type of assignment helps students develop critical thinking skills, understand the nuances of different research methods, and learn how to effectively communicate complex ideas in writing.

Project
Management

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
The causes, environments, and properties of complex projects .................................................1
Different tools and techniques to aid a project manager manage complex projects..................3
The degree and nature of the projects in context of the theories and ideas of complex project 6
Projects with lots of parts and interconnections..........................................................................9
Projects that contain a great deal of uncertainty ......................................................................10
project that are heavily time-constrained..................................................................................11
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................12
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................13

INTRODUCTION
The concept of project management is the application of process, methods, knowledge,
skills and experience in order to achieve the objectives of the project. If the objectives are
achieved in the project, then that is usually deemed to be a success. In order to determine
whether the benefit to the organisation will be there an idea for a project will be carefully
examined (Addis, 2012). It is being identified by the decision-maker whether the project will be
realistically be completed. The resources, time, budget etc. is being allocated by the project
managers in order to fulfil the objectives of the project. On a variety of factors the way the work
is managed depends on. At producing an end product project management is essentially aims .
Within given time constraints, the goals of the project need to be achieved. In the project
documentation, the information is described usually that is being created at the starting of
development process. The scope, quality, budget etc. are the primary constraints.
In this report the causes, environments and properties of the complex project will be
explained. This report will also represent the different tools techniques that can be used by the
project manager in order to manager complex project. Furthermore, this projects will present
lots of parts and interconnection and that contain a great deal of uncertainty.
The causes, environments, and properties of complex projects
Causes of complex projects
Due to budget and team size, strategic viewpoints, stakeholder engagement complex
project can be viewed as complex. And also the impact of dedicated teams that are doing project
based work that span from one to five years form extension can also be the cause of complex
projects (De Bruijn and Ten Heuvelhof, 2010). A series of challenges of greater magnitude is
being there in managing a complex project. From small to large projects the project complexity
really has no boundaries . The number of variables and interfaced, lack of awareness of events
and casualty are some causes of the project complexity. The rapid rate of change can also be the
cause of complex project.
The construction projects also come in the category of complex projects. In addition, the
construction is described as a complex and risky business. In the construction industry, the
project complexity can be considered when a project includes the work of construction on a
confined field with access difficulty and many y trades are required to work in proximity and at
the same time. In the industry there seems to be two perspective of project complexity that is
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managerial perspective and operative and technological perspective. In the construction project,
when a lot of details are needed about how to be executed, then it is considered as complex
projects. In the managerial perspective the plan is being made to bring together the various parts
of the work to form the wok flow. However, on technological perspective includes the technical
intricacies or complexities of executing individual pieces of work. From the use of resources and
the in which they are being carried out they may originate. Not only due to technical issues the
projects are being described as complex projects about also due to wide organisational factors
which are beyond the control of project manager's the project is termed as complex (Dykstra,
2011. ).
In a IT project the project is termed as complex projects when in creating something
unique or solve some issue when there is some complexity. Due to uncertainty this type of
uncertainty arises. It is not sure whether the outcome of project will work or not. This is known
as complexity of faith. With a large amount of interdependent information when in the project
we have to deal then it is termed a complexity of fact. In this no time there is to understand the
full evaluation and undertone the information but there is a need to take a decision. In the two
key concept that is differentiation and interdependency, the project complexity is defined
(Fleming and Koppelman, 2016). The number of varied elements is referred to as differentiation
and among those element the degree of interrelatedness are referred as interdependency. The
structural complexity arises when there is difficulty in managing and keeping task of huge
number of interrelated tasks and activities. With large construction, engineering and defence
projects it is commonly associated. Technical complexity is found in projects that have technical
or design issues that are linked with product that have not being before produced. When the
projects are made in which the techniques are not known or untried then this type of complexities
takes place. For an instance, in IT projects while developing software if that tools is not used
before then there can be issues that can be theree in the project. By shifting and unanticipated
environmental impact or unexpected legislative, changes can be the reason of temporal
complexity.
Environment of complex projects
In every project there is a unique challenges. In the complex issues the environmental
awareness is required by a project manager. In terms of people, process and technology the
business projects can be characterised .In the complex environments the challenges are amplified
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(Griffith, Stephenson and Watson, 2014). The indicator of a complex project environment is lack
of process and documentation. There can have significant type of technology and technology
maturity. For the small firms, implementing a new technology can be challenge. The required
skills can be lacked by a small IT team thus on external contact this may leave them reliant.
Under changing, volatile environmental condition complex projects take place. Thus this will
need an adaptive iterative approach. The large-scale urban renewal projects, military
interventions are some of the examples. In the construction project, the environment describes all
the external influences on the construction process (Ilozor and Kelly, 2012). Outside the project,
the environment includes virtually everything. The technology, the nature of its products,
customers and rivals. With the planned progress of construction projects the environment
interferes . In managing the development of construction project, it must be taken into account
when the environment is less predictable and also it has greater potential effects. In order to scan
an environment, a project managers in addition must also set up a process that will recognise
potential problems and will help them to solve these issues (Hallowell and Wehle, 2013).
Properties of complex projects
The some properties of complex projects can be the high risk. When the risk in the
project is high, then it can be considered as complex project or when the number of task in any
project is more, then it is also a complex project. The complex projects are characterised by the
uncertainty, non-linearity and re cursiveness. Some characteristics of complex projects that are in
construction site projects or in defence projects are as follows-:
 In the construction site, there are numerous elaborately interrelated or interconnected
components
 In order to conduct the construction project when there is great uncertainty from start to
finish (Janda and Killip, 2013. )
Different tools and techniques to aid a project manager manage complex projects
Projects are nearly considered as every activity within an enterprise that could be labelled
as a project possessing unique characteristic and varying levels of importance in order to the
organisation. It is also as planned undertaking of various related activities in order to reach to the
objectives which has the beginning and end (Kerzner and Kerzner, 2017). Project management is
also important task that implies to plan, organise and control a specific project so that it will
complete in a specific time period along with accomplishment of specified objectives.
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Employing project management techniques will minimise the disruption of routine business
activities in the different cases by placing under a single command all the technologies, skills and
resources required to realise a project. In present context, for the management of specific project,
there are some important tools and techniques have been analysed that needs to be used by the
project manager of business enterprise in order to complete a complex construction project in
specific time duration like
 Gantt charts: It is important tool of project management devised by the HENRY Gantt
in 1917. A Gantt chart is horizontal bar chart used for scheduling of project. Every
activity is being depicted over time, actual performance needs to be recorded in real time
and compared to planned deadlines necessary for achievement completion (Burke, 2013).
In present context, by using the Gantt chart, the project manager will be able to plan the
scale of project and make an estimation of resources required. Further, through graphical
representation of schedule of activities will be done by manager of organisation to
complete the project. For example: ideal wall chart for the office and easy to visualise
and can be interpreted in the meetings. By developing Gantt chart, manager will be able
to plan, effectively coordinate and track specific activities which are small not complex.
 PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Techniques): It is an important technique that
helps in providing a better time estimation for a particular project, by accounting for the
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problems and uncertainty while estimating project timeline (Alias and et.al., 2014). For
example: Project managers for completion of construction project could make estimation
of the worse, best and most probable timeline for every activity and also specify an
average time of completion. As per the analysis, these methods will be undertaken by
delegating probabilities to the three estimates and calculation of an expected value.
Further, average time for every activity would be used to configure the elapsed time of
the project (Traditional Project Management, 2018.). It is considered as beneficial as it
determines an interrelationship between different tasks and activities. All the resources
will be planned by the managers and allocates efficiently for using it. For example: staff
planning.
 Critical path Analysis: Gantt charts are identified as poor project time management tool
when the project are complex (Ramazani and Jergeas, 2015). There are often exist in big
projects where the interdependency among the various activities For example: Some
tasks cannot be started, until other have been completed first, therefore many activities
are interrelated. Gantt charts are considered as less effective and undesirable for the
organisation like construction companies as it does not indicate interdependencies.
Network or critical path analysis will determine the more logically the sequence and time
duration of every activity, they communicate interdependency and the more effectively
time management tool for the longer and complex projects. By using this method,
managers of company will be able to complete effective resource planning and they can
also divert the resources from non critical to critical activities (Kaiser and et.al., 2015).
For example: Staff can be moved from one to another, should specify the problems
overrunning occurs on the critical activities. It can be determined in four ways like ES
which is the earliest starting time, EF – the earliest finishing time, LS- the Latest starting
time and LF- the latest finishing time. It involves the process in which the project must be
break down in to a logical sequence of activities that needs to be completed, estimation of
the each activity and arrangement of activities in the most efficient sequence of events
and estimate the elapsed time of the project.
 Water fall methodology: It is the traditional approach that is used for the project
management and more commonly used in the manufacturing and construction sectors
(Bucero and Englund, 2015). Further, lot of experts believes that it was most convenient
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and effective method that follows a linear approach towards project management with the
project is being broken down in to the sequences with the kick off of the phase that is
depended upon the completion of the preceding one. It is involves mainly five stages like
Ideas engineering, System design, implementation, testing and validation and
maintenance.
The degree and nature of the projects in context of the theories and ideas of complex project
There are various types of projects .Some of the projects are as follows-:
Construction projects
An artefact is produced by this project. In the artefact the value generated by the project
is embedded. With human and mechanical component the artefact may be a complex system.
The customer call centre, IT system can be some of the examples of construction projects. This
project starts with a set of requirements and also with a well-defined solutions .It is stopped
when the artefact is completed and all the requirements areas satisfied. It can be analysed over
the lifetime of the artefact .The technical risk can be thee in construction project. The uncertainty
of resources and availability of material are included in the technical risk. The environmental
risks can also be there in the construction project (Lientz, 2012.). This may include the natural
disasters, weather and seasonal implications. All these risks can make the construction project
complex.
Research projects
The knowledge is produced from this project. In the form of modules, patterns or patent,
the knowledge can be presented formally. In a working process or artefact, the knowledge may
be embedded. The military intelligence business modelling are some of the examples of the
research projects. This starts with a hypothesis and with a problem. This project will stop when
the time tuns out or when the diminishing returns are being detected. This can be analysed when
the knowledge is being used in the future work. In this risk is there if the proper research is not
done regarding the project then the chances are high that this project may fail.
Re-engineering projects
In some system or process the project produces a desired change in some system. The
deigning and installing an intranet is the example of re-engineering projects. With a opportunity
or problem this project mainly starts (Kubba, 2010.).
Procurement projects
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A business relationship is produced on this project. With a selected supplier for a defied
product or services the relations are established. The imposing of new rule and measures on a
regulatory industry is the example of procurement projects. With a well-set of requirements this
project will start and also the solution will also be defined .It is stopped when a tender document
is constructed .It can be analysed over the completion of the contract.
Business implementation projects
An operational effective process is produced in this project. In the process the value
generated by the project is embedded. The installation of e-commerce and development of a new
process of business to repackage and exploit the current existing asset are the example of
business implementation projects. With a business concept this project will start and it will stop
when the business benefits are starting to become visible.
The different theories that can be used in the complex projects are as follows-:
For the software project, success the software development life cycle is important. On the
basis of the project that is construction, the project manager need to select one model on the basis
of their knowledge and experience. According to the specific concerns and requirements of the
project, the right SDLC models need to be chosen (Mir and Pinnington, 2014.).
Waterfall model
Through the phases of the software implementation in this progress is seen as flowing
steadily downwards. This shows that any phase in development process starts only if the
previous phase is completed. The process to go back is not defined by this model .For the
software development the water model is used widely and is one of the earliest approach. This
can be used in project that does not pay attention on change in the requirements. For an instance
from request for proposals the project is initiated. In this a very clear requirements the customers
will have. For the project this model will have a plan and schedule.
Agile model
On the iterative and incremental development this model is based. Through collaboration
between cross -functional team the requirements and solution will evolve. In any type of the
project that is in construction project, re-engineering project etc. this can be used. From the
customers but this will need more engagement. In this customers will be more satisfied and end
result is the high-quality software.
Theories of project management
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In order to manage the complexity and uncertainty in the product development more
successful the complex alternative system can be beneficial. In managing the complex projects
the flexibility will be provided. The various functions are being served by an explicit theory of
project management. The explanation of the observed behaviour is being given by this theory
and to the understanding it will thus contribute. The prediction of the future behaviour also to
contributes. The tools for analysing, designing and controlling can be built on the basis of the
theory. In pinpointing the sources of further progress a theory gives indication (Complexity in
Projects , 2018.).
Theory of management
The project management is divided in the initiation, planning, execution, controlling and
closing process. A plan is provided by the planning process.
Theory of planning
In the core processes and facilitating processes the planing processes are structured. The
scope planning,the scope definition, resource planning ,activity planning , estimation of cost etc
are some of the core processes. From these process , the project plans the output makes up an
input to the executing process. It is being assumed that organisation have both management part
and effector part.
Theory of execution
In order to make sure that the work is done on the right time and in appropriate sequence,
a work authorisation system is a formal procedure. On a specific activity or work package, the
primary mechanism is typically a written authorisation to start a work. The value of the control
that is given with cost to that control should balance with the design of the work authorisation
system. For an instance, verbal authorisation will be adequate for smaller projects.
Theory of controlling
In the two processes the core process of controlling is divided. They are performance
operating and overall change control. Corrections are prescribed for the executing processes base
done the former and the changes are prescribed for the planing processes based on the latter.
Based on the performance baseline only performance reporting is considered. To the cybernetic
model of management control they clearly respond and the following element are being
considered. They are as follows-:
 A standard of performance is there
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 At the output or input performance is there.
On the three theories of management that is management as planning, the dispatching model and
the thermostat model the project management seems to be based.
The idea
Strengthened project foundations and frameworks
The unique characteristics of large, complex projects is not adequately addressed by the
current theory of project. In an improved project initiation process the formal owner readiness
assessments are a first step. In order to address the white space risks the risk focus must be
expanded .The baselines of the project need to be strengthened by the foundations. The training
need to be given in project governance,In order to identify and mange the new risk of
collaboration the new risk model need to be used (A New Theory for Managing Large Complex
Projects, 2018.).
The use of modern technology
To embrace the technology, the construction industry is typically slow. The successful
projects can be delivered by making use of technology. The efficiency of on-site operation can
be improved with new construction industry such as autonomous plant, drones, mobile
application etc.
Projects with lots of parts and interconnections
Under project management, there are various important activities needs to be performed
by the managers which interconnected with the each other and needed to be performed in
sequences so that effective procedure will be followed. Further, a complex project consists
various parts that the needs to be consider by the managers and they have to focus on
interconnection which are need to be completed in sequence otherwise it will challenge for
organisation in completion of project (Vanhoucke, 2012). Further, there are various critical
activities have been involved in the project management that needs to taken in to consideration in
order to gain their support. For example: Managers of construction needs to handle various
crucial project of development of commercial buildings. For the completion of the project the
manager needs to perform various crucial activities like Obtaining license, selection of location,
Market research, taking important decisions, collection of resources like finance, interiors and
human resources requires completing the project, it also involves organising and final
implementation of the project effectively. Further, these complex also consist of planning,
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allocation of resources, development of proper project design and implementation of effective
techniques along with the implementation of various important business techniques. In order to
accomplish this type of project, managers needs to develop Gantt chart which is determined as
important tool that is scheduling the project that contains lots of part and task that is effectively
managed. By using this chart, managers will be depict as block over time, actual performance
will also be recorded in the real time and compared to the planned deadlines which are
considered essential for accomplishment. In chart, manager will be able to plan the time scale for
the project that can be used to estimate the resources required. Scheduling of all the activities
will enable the managers perform the tasks in proper sequence of the project. With these
effective methodologies, the organisation will be able to accomplish the projects effectively
along with the accomplishment of specific project and interventions. Moreover, completion of
this effective process will enable the manager to accomplish the project that needs to be
completed by the management. Critics of literature has determined that preparation of Gantt will
be effective methodology for effective project management, but it is useful for the project will
less complexity and it also less effective in completion of project in specified time duration.
Projects that contain a great deal of uncertainty
Risk and uncertainty are the two unnatural events that always occurs automatically in
front of managers and organisation while managing and working on a complex projects.
Uncertainty is considered as event that occurs which was previously considered by the managers
and affects the process and activities of project management (Ofori, 2013). It is also considered
as outcomes of event which is completely unknown to the managers and it cannot be measured.,
In this, managers does not even have background information on the event even though it is
being identified. For example: In a construction project, there are various uncertainties involved
like increase in prices of raw material, shortage in funds, ineffective allocation of resources,
shortage of time, breakdown of machinery etc. Execution of these types of projects are
considered as crucial task the for companies and their companies as they have to analysis of all
problems that they will face in future due to project will get influenced. As per the above
research, it has been identified that project evaluation and review technique has been emerged as
the most effective techniques that is used to complete the crucial and project with high
uncertainties. For example: Project managers for completion of construction project could make
estimation of the worse, best and most probable timeline for every activity and also specify an
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average time of completion. It is being considered as important methodology that needs to be
used by the method for the accomplishment of the project (Lientz and Rea, 2016). It is used to
incorporate uncertainties by making it possible to schedule the construction project while not
understanding precisely the details and time duration of all the tasks and activities. It is used by
manager to calculate the amount of time it will take to complete the project. It allows the
managers to create different time estimate like Shortest possible time each, most probable
amount of time longest amount of time for each task, manager will take if the things do not go to
plan. For example: Online project management soft wares includes PERT so that the managers
will can interrelate the tasks according to allocated resources. It also serves as warning systems
of task dependencies. A Gantt chart by itself will not serve as an effective tool because it is
generally just lays out the activities in the form of list. Further, By using performance evaluation
and review techniques, the manager needs to visualise that all the activities of the project in
effective manner and each of their interdependencies.
project that are heavily time-constrained.
From effective analysis, it is also analysed that there are also some projects will come to
the management that contains strict deadlines. Tax preparers consider that the April 15 is firms
deadline and penalties will be incurred for filing later than that. Project that are heavily time
constraints sometimes requires high budget allocations for resources to meet the deadlines
(Yaghootkar and Gil, 2012). A perfect project manager will understand that which item of
budget increases will beneficial for the project. For example: In construction project if there is a
deadline and the company has limited time to complete the project then increasing personnel will
only benefit to the project if the company owns sufficient equipment for the more people to be
fully utilized. Rent additional equipment will only provide support if the organisation posses
enough trained personnel to utilize the new equipment and getting the both may be cost effective.
For the completion and management of this type of project, the managers needs to use the critical
path methodology in which the teams in organisation will be able to understand the criticality of
every activity or task by the heights at which It has been placed. Network or critical path analysis
will determine the more logically the sequence and time duration of every activity, they
communicate interdependency and the more effectively time management tool for the longer and
complex projects (Kaiser and et.al., 2015). In order to calculate the critical path, company
considers the time duration, dependencies between all the activities and date constraints that
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company will have defined in the planning. These major activities will determine the time
constraints and also determine effectiveness of these time constraints that needs to be used by the
managers. By using this method, managers of company will be able to complete effective
resource planning and they can also divert the resources from non critical to critical.
Antivivisection the criticality are repositioned accordingly at the top of your project’s schedule.
Thus, it is can be said that these important tools and techniques will enable the managers of
company to handle complex projects effectively.
CONCLUSION
Thus, summing up the above report, it can be concluded that budget, time, team -size and
the numerous tasks in project can make that complex. The risk is high in the complete project.
The construction project, research project and re-engineering project are different types of
project. The new technology need to be used in the construction projects. Under project
management, there are various important activities needs to be performed by the managers which
interconnected with the each other and needed to be performed in sequences is that effective
procedure will be followed.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals:
Addis, B., 2012. Building with reclaimed components and materials: a design handbook for
reuse and recycling. Routledge.
Alias and et.al., 2014. Determining critical success factors of project management practice: A
conceptual framework. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences. 153. pp.61-69.
Bucero, A. and Englund, R.L., 2015, October. Project sponsorship: Achieving management
commitment for project success. Project Management Institute.
Burke, R., 2013. Project management: planning and control techniques. New Jersey, USA.
De Bruijn, H. and Ten Heuvelhof, E., 2010. Process management: why project management fails
in complex decision making processes. Springer Science & Business Media.
Dykstra, A., 2011. Construction project management: A complete introduction. Kirshner
Publishing Company.
Fleming, Q.W. and Koppelman, J.M., 2016, December. Earned value project management.
Project Management Institute.
Griffith, A., Stephenson, P. and Watson, P., 2014. Management systems for construction.
Routledge.
Hallowell, M.R. and Wehle, A., 2013. Proactive construction safety control: Measuring,
monitoring, and responding to safety leading indicators. Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management, 139(10), p.04013010.
Ilozor, B. D. and Kelly, D. J., 2012. Building information modeling and integrated project
delivery in the commercial construction industry: A conceptual study. Journal of
Engineering, Project, and Production Management. 2(1). p.23.
Janda, K. B. and Killip, G., 2013. Building expertise: renovation as professional
innovation. Constructing green: The social structures of sustainability. pp.35-55.
Kaiser and et.al., 2015. Successful project portfolio management beyond project selection
techniques: Understanding the role of structural alignment. International Journal of Project
Management. 33(1). pp.126-139.
Kerzner, H. and Kerzner, H.R., 2017. Project management: a systems approach to planning,
scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley & Sons.
Kubba, S., 2010. Green construction project management and cost oversight. Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Lientz, B. and Rea, K., 2016. Breakthrough technology project management. Routledge.
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Lientz, B. P., 2012. Project Management: A problem-based approach. Palgrave Macmillan.
Mir, F.A. and Pinnington, A.H., 2014. Exploring the value of project management: linking
project management performance and project success. International journal of project
management, 32(2), pp.202-217.
Ofori, D.F., 2013. Project management practices and critical success factors–a developing
country perspective. International Journal of Business and Management. 8(21). p.14.
Ramazani, J. and Jergeas, G., 2015. Project managers and the journey from good to great: The
benefits of investment in project management training and education. International Journal of
Project Management. 33(1). pp.41-52.
Vanhoucke, M., 2012. Project management with dynamic scheduling. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg.
Yaghootkar, K. and Gil, N., 2012. The effects of schedule-driven project management in multi-
project environments. International Journal of Project Management. 30(1). pp.127-140.
Online:
Traditional Project Management, 2018. [Online]. Available
through:<https://activecollab.com/blog/project-management/traditional-project-management/>
Complexity in Projects , 2018. [PDF]. Available
through:<http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:158819/fulltext01.pdf/>
A New Theory for Managing Large Complex Projects. 2018. [Online]. Available
through:<https://futureofconstruction.org/solution/a-new-theory-for-managing-large-complex-
projects/>
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