Psychology of Addiction

This essay explores the role of positive reinforcement in the development of substance use disorders and addiction. It discusses the neurological changes that lead to drug addiction and the impact of positive reinforcement on the progression of addiction. The essay also examines the neuropharmacological effects of different drugs and their contribution to withdrawal symptoms. The role of associative learning mechanisms in continued drug intake is also discussed.

Running head: PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTION
Psychology of addiction
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Introduction:
Substance use disorder is a serious clinical health condition as misuse of substances lead
to real issues of addiction and contributes too many serious health and social problems for
affected individuals. The consumption of substances is associated with transient feelings of
euphoria and the consequent dependence on those substances by a subset of individuals (Herman
& Roberto, 2015). The key challenges for professionals in the field of psychology are to
understand how drugs affect the brain system and lead to the addiction state. This will help to
identify vulnerable population and identify the manner in which they develop addiction to the
drug. This essay particularly focuses on exploring the role of positive reinforcement on the
development of substance use disorder and study the neurological changes lead to drug
addiction.
Impact of positive enforcement on development of substance use disorders and addiction:
Four behaviours dominate during the cycle of addiction which involves impulsivity,
compulsivity, negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is
mainly linked to drug-induced euphoria and negative reinforcement is linked to alleviation of
pain. Hence, positive reinforcement is the first phenomenon that is seen during the cycle of
addiction and it leads to the development of drug consumption habits. The positive reinforcing
effects of drug lead to tolerance and use of substance in greater amount or increased frequency
thus leading to addiction. The argument given by Wise and Koob (2014) on the role of positive
reinforcement to establish an addiction suggest that there is lack of scientific definition that
explains how recreational habit changes to an addiction habit. Herman and Roberto (2015)
suggests how the transition from being a user to an abuser and then to addiction occurs. The

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positive reinforcement is the factor that drives people to negative behaviour or negative
reinforcement like stress, anxiety and depression resulting in repeated use of drugs. Different
drugs lead to different patterns of addiction and the review of neuropharmacological effects of
most drugs can explain how the phenomenon of drug addiction occurs.
Positive reinforcement is the first stage in the cycle of drug addictions and the
progression to drug addiction occurs because of changes in normal brain circuitry and long last
effects of neuroplastic changes. Neurotransmitters like glutamate, dopamine and acetylcholine
and neurocircuits like amygdale, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex plays a vital role in the
pathological changes and shift from anticipation to intoxication and withdrawal effect (Herman
& Roberto, 2015). The impact and mechanism associated with different drugs is different. In
case of alcohol addiction, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity in the brain
plays a vital role in triggering the molecular mechanism. Alcohol induces heat shock factor 1
promoting coordinated adaptation in GABAergica presynaptic terminals in cortical neurone. This
leads to change in synaptic functions soon after alcohol consumption and explains the effect of
chronic alcohol intake on local circuit function (Zamora-Martinez & Edwards, 2014).
Neuropharmacological effect of drugs and substance use disorder:
There are different effects of continued drug use. For some, repeated substance use is
associated with diminishing enjoyment from drug intake and for some, withdrawal from drug is
associated with severe discomfort. Mirijello et al. (2015) gives the evidence that when a drug
user abruptly discontinues drug, this is associated with withdrawal symptoms like physical
dependence, anxiety, mood swings, seizures, insomnia and agitation. Many drugs play a role in
causing such physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms upon cessation. The underlying

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neuropharmacological behind such symptoms varies with different types of drug abuse. In case
of alcohol withdrawal symptoms, it is linked to changes in the noradrenaline and dopamine
levels. Adenergic hyperstimulation may intensify because of the decrease in activity of pre-
synaptic inhibitory adrenoreceptors. The feedback mechanisms in the receptor lead to release of
monoamines. This changes result in increased physiological reactions such as tachycardia
through the activation of beta adrenergic receptors and hypertension through the activation of
adrenergic pathways (Haass-Koffler, Swift & Leggio, 2018).
Seizure is also a common withdrawal symptom and the symptoms emerge because of the
disruption of the Central Nervous System due to constant exposure. Continued period of alcohol
consumption is associated with increase in both GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) levels and
the sensitivity of GABA receptors. This is followed by activation of the glutamate system and
initiation of nervous system hyperactivity in the absence of alcohol. Hence, overall it can be
concluded that alcohol contributes to inhibitory effects of the GABA and this suppresses the
neuronal activity. As chronic exposure decreases the activity of the GABA receptors, more
concentration of alcohol concentrations are required to achieve tolerance (Sachdeva, Choudhary
& Chandra, 2015). Hence, this mechanism explains why some people experience severe
discomfort after discontinue drugs or alcohol. This results in continued period of intake too.
Apart from alcohol withdrawal symptoms, decrease in euphoria after drug intake is also
reported by many people. This is mainly seen because of interplay between pleasure and
addiction factors. The liberal view of addiction posits that drug use is associated with pleasure
seeking behaviour and the repetitive drug seeking behaviour might be linked to decrease in
pleasure. Addiction is a three stage process associated with intoxification, negative affect and
anticipation. The cycle becomes severe if a person engage in long period of substance use and it

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results in severe changes in brain function. The underlying neurobiological changes decreases a
person;s ability to control their substance use. Due to drug abuse, disruption is mostly seen in
three areas of the brain such as the basal ganglia, the extended amygdala and the prefrontal
cortex. This supports that with repeated use, the positive reinforcing effects of drugs is reduced.
This condition is called tolerance which further increases the consumption of drugs in large
amount to fulfil the initial level of reinforcement (Mental & Office of the Surgeon General,
2016). Hence, at this stage impulsivity shifts to compulsivity and positive reinforcement shift to
negative reinforcement.
Relation between associative learning mechanisms and continued drug intake:
The shift from pleasure to negative reinforcement in drug addiction cycle is understood
by the means of associative learning theory. Theories like tolerance and opponent-process
theories explain the process of shift from positive to negative reinforcement. The habituated
action due to drug addiction is mediated by the dorsolateral striatum and the infralimbic cortex.
However, habitual control action is prevented by neural mechanisms related to inactivation of the
DLS and failure to develop habitual control (Hogarth et al., 2013). Hence, substance abuse is
mainly regarded as a goal directed behaviour and addiction occurs because of gradual weakening
of the role of utilization in the execution of action sequences thus leading to drug habits.
Conclusion:
To conclude, the discussion regarding the role of positive reinforcement in development
of substance use disorders and addiction suggest that euphoria and pleasure is the main factor
that results in repetition of drug consumption and further moving to the drug addiction phase.
However, neurobiological mechanisms associated with exposure to many drug is associated with

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changes in brain function resulting in withdrawal effect and negative reinforcement. The
arguments related to the role of associative learning mechanism on drug addiction indicate the
importance of the proper understanding of neurobiological mechanisms behind drug addiction on
treatment and control of adverse effects for people with drug abuse.

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References:
Haass-Koffler, C. L., Swift, R. M., & Leggio, L. (2018). Noradrenergic targets for the treatment
of alcohol use disorder. Psychopharmacology, 235(6), 1625-1634.
Herman, M. A., & Roberto, M. (2015). The addicted brain: understanding the neurophysiological
mechanisms of addictive disorders. Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 9, 18.
Hogarth, L., Balleine, B. W., Corbit, L. H., & Killcross, S. (2013). Associative learning
mechanisms underpinning the transition from recreational drug use to addiction. Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1282(1), 12-24.
Mental, H. S. A. U., & Office of the Surgeon General (US. (2016). Facing Addiction in America:
The Surgeon General's Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Retrieved from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424849/
Mirijello, A., D’Angelo, C., Ferrulli, A., Vassallo, G., Antonelli, M., Caputo, F., ... &
Addolorato, G. (2015). Identification and management of alcohol withdrawal
syndrome. Drugs, 75(4), 353-365.
Sachdeva, A., Choudhary, M., & Chandra, M. (2015). Alcohol withdrawal syndrome:
benzodiazepines and beyond. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR, 9(9),
VE01.
Wise, R. A., & Koob, G. F. (2014). The development and maintenance of drug
addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39(2), 254.

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Zamora-Martinez, E. R., & Edwards, S. (2014). Neuronal extracellular signal-regulated kinase
(ERK) activity as marker and mediator of alcohol and opioid dependence. Frontiers in
integrative neuroscience, 8, 24.