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Study on Epistemology

   

Added on  2019-10-16

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Question 1. (a.)Epistemology is the study of scope and nature of the justified belief and knowledge. The nature of knowledge is analyzed and then related to the notions of belief, truth and justification. The production of knowledge along with skepticism related to these knowledge claims have been related to epistemology. Therefore it deals with the creation as well as dissemination of knowledge in the inquiry areas. It consist of a vast array of concepts, notions and views regarding the propositional knowledge, however the fact that knowledge is the true belief is one virtually universal presupposition however not merely a true belief. For instance, true beliefs or luck guesses cannot be addressed as knowledge as they result from some wishful thinking. Epistemology discusses propositional knowledge i.e. Where the “knowledge-that” instead of “knowledge-how”. This can be discussed by stating the example of 3+3= 6 instead of the knowledge of addition of numbers. What is knowledge?The understanding and awareness of the aspects related to reality is known as knowledge. In clear terms, the data and information gained using the process of applying reasons to the reality is knowledge. Traditionally, three sufficient and necessary conditions are required for knowledge so as to define knowledge in the termsof “justified true belief”. Truth: in case the propositions are to be counted as knowledge, they have to be true and factual.Belief: this is important as it is not possible for one to not know something the other onedoesn’t believe it. Justification: in contrast to have a belief on thing which is just a matter of luck. In term of evidentialism, a belief is justified with the help of possession of evidences. The various theories of Reliabilism can be suggested by the fact that either knowledge does not require any justification if it is reliably-produced true belief or the fact that any reliable cognitive process like touch or vision are enough for the justification. Another theory of Infallibilism states that a certain belief does not have to be justified or true but this justification must be able to necessitate the true meaning of it therefore anyjustification for that certain belied has to be infallible in nature.How is knowledge acquired? On the basis of the source, the propositional knowledge is sorted out into two parts, a.A non-empirical or priori: The knowledge is present irrespective of any experience and only maintains the reason and its usage. For example, the logicaltruths, abstract claims etc. and the knowledge behind it.b.Empirical or posteriori: The knowledge is related to any sense experience, or posterior along with the reason and its usage. For example, the shape and colourof the object, geographical locations and their knowledge.

The knowledge regarding the physical world and its empirical facts are usually seen to include the use of senses or perception. But some reasoning is required along with data analysis and inferences. The transfer of knowledge is seen to be transmitted using the testimony. The knowledge acquisition can be explained by the following primary theories.a.Empiricism emphasizing on the experience and its role on the basis of experience of perceptual observation using the five sense whereas the notion of innate concepts and ideas has to be discounted. This basic principles with some refinement has led to development of Positivism, Phenomenalism, Logical positivism and Scientism.b. Rationalism expressing that knowledge is acquired using the innate, priori or intuitive process not are not derived from the experience. c.Representationalism: holds the fact that the universe and world around is not realbut it is actually a replica version of the miniature virtual-reality of the internal representation of that world.d.Constructionism: is based on presupposition that knowledge is basically constructed where the knowledge is contingent on the human perception, convention and social experience.The knowledge and its justification depends on the some other beliefs as the justification process is seen leading to an infinite regress. The apparent impossibility for completion of the infinite reasoning chain begins from skepticism further arguing that thebeliefs are not justified and people do not have much information. The absolute certainty regarding the knowledge, according to Fallibilism, is highly impossible and further seen that the claims associated with knowledge are mistaken. But fallbilism is different from skepticiosm as it does not imply the necessity to abandon the knowledge as the further observation can be helpful in revising the empirical knowledge and the knowledge might turn out to be false.This regress issues have the following concerning thoughts: Foundationalism claiming that the beliefs which are seen to support another beliefs are foundational in nature and do not require any justification using other beliefs. Instrumentalism where the theories and concepts are used as useful instruments whose worth is evaluated by determining how predicting and explaining things. Therefore the truth-evaluable theories are denied by instrumentalism.Pragmatism holds true only when they are working and are seen to have practical consequences.The infinite series when are potential are defined by Infinitism and the person should have the ability to present it in times of need. Therefore, this theory considers the infinite regress to have an effective and valid justification. When an individual belief is justified circularly in a manner to cohere as per the belief system it is a part of, so that the regress is not processing as per the linear justification pattern. Foundherentism reflects the unison of coherentism and foundationalism.

Question 1. (b.) While conducting a study on effectiveness of the virtual teams so as to manage complex projects, various challenges can be encountered. While presenting the case study of virtual team for managing the complex project, four concepts i.e. the task, time, transition and teams are considered. The challenges and issues have been mentioned below:a.Communication issues: communication being the key factor in complex projects and require communication efforts. The complexity of the project defines its communicative efforts. Therefore, the complex the projects, the more communicative efforts are required. Communication difficulties are seen to increase when the teams are changed and foundation for communication is established again (e.g. Kayworth and Leidner 2000). In case the teams are seen to change constantly, it is imperative for the organization to set up proper communication standards. The main role of the virtual teams in order to attain specific goal is to have task orientated communication. Lots of communication efforts in the project will justify to the fact that work is being performed in the organization. b.Trust issues: The project provides a justification to the project and its existence (Lundin and Söderholm, 1995). Motivation towards project team will become challenging if the project task is not trusted. The task and its importance is not important but the task must be meaningful and it must be about the project team behind it. Therefore along with a proper communication channel, the organizationmust also support trust in the task. In order to success, the trust must be present at high level in the project teams. Team participation and active communication lead to acquiring of confidential and important knowledge which further strengthens the trust. The parent organizations must trust in the project team for effecting the project in a right manner. Whereas the implementation phase of the project is considered to be highly important for non-trusting parent organization.c.Leadership issues: The main finding regarding the leadership challenge are related to the task and transition elements of temporality. Due to the task orientation of temporary projects, transactional leadership style was favored in the case company. Communication and coordination were seen the main leadership activities. Project managers and project sponsor was seen as the responsible persons for the success of the project in the transition. Without successful implementation of the project to the organization in stake, the project should be considered as a failure. The complex projects have the tendency to bring out a radical change in the organization and therefore a right leadership willstrive to provide a justification to the parent organization (Lundin and Söderholm, 1995) and might cause rifts among the project group and parent organization.

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