Theories of Race and Ethnicity

This assignment provides an in-depth analysis of theories related to race and ethnicity, encompassing multiple disciplines such as sociology, psychology, education, and public health. It references a wide range of sources including books, articles, and journals that explore the complexities of identity, diversity, and inequality. The selected readings cover topics like cultural influence on diversity policy, the impact of interest group diversity on legal implementation, and the role of schools in social transformation. This comprehensive assignment is ideal for students seeking to understand the nuances of race and ethnicity and their implications across various fields.

Running head: RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK
RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK
Name of the student:
Name of University:
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RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK1
This essay discusses the impact of the diversity in social work and how the social
work practitioners face these issues of racism and ethnicity while performing their jobs.
Diversity has become a key feature of the society irrespective of developed or
underdeveloped countries. Social workers now a days are finding numerous issues while
working with their clients. This is because in their operations they come across various
people with different backgrounds as well as culture. For effectively working with these
groups or communities, the social workers need to have proper understanding of the
significance of diverse ethnicity and cultural factors (Cnx.org 2018). This is due to the fact
that these racial and ethnic issues have greater influence on the perceptions, behaviour and
response to interventions. Appropriate knowledge about these factors is prerequisite for
understanding hence critical for the meaningful practices. However, knowledge and
understanding are the sole fact to establish social work relationships.
The knowledge of ethnicity and racism must be supported by the sensitivity of the
practitioner towards different culture and background. There should be a wide conceptual
model appropriate for working with diverse ethnic culture as well as tradition of client. In
accordance with discussing specific groups, the practitioners should properly apply racism
universally (Piquero et al.2015). The social work practitioners work with families,
individuals, groups and communities for serving with legal policies, healthcare and other
facilities. Through proper description of the requirements and description of particulate ethnic
traits, enable the practitioners to see the problems from their own perspectives as well as of
others. Thus, this help on creating greater and better awareness of the diversity in the society,
their problems, helping process and scopes for betterment.
This essay discusses various theories and models associated with the concept of
racism and ethnicity present in the society and how these create issues for reaching as well as
serving the people by the social work practitioners. The essay discusses how these

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK2
practitioners face issues of racism while communicating or aiding the individuals, groups,
families and communities. It analyses the cultural and ethnic issues emerging in the social
services, health care sectors and social welfare policies.
The issues of race and ethnicity can be examined through three chief sociological
theories functionalism, Marxist perspectives, symbolic interactionism and critical theory.
These theories are capable to explain the issues of racism, prejudice, discrimination as well as
stereotypes.
Functionalism:
In this view, racial and ethnic dissimilarities must have served an important function
for existing as long as they have. However, this ideology is problematic as most of the
scholar find racism and ethnic diversity to be the root cause of discrimination which cannot
contribute positively to the welfare of the society (Piquero et al.2015). Many sociologists,
adhere with this view as they find functions and dysfunctions originated by the racial
inequality. The argue that racism and discrimination have positive impacts but these only
provide benefit to the dominant community. Historically, this helped the dominant groups to
function and maintain gap between the high and low class by supporting and entertaining
discrimination against the subordinate groups (Cnx.org 2018). For instance, slavery is always
beneficial for the slave holders. Through this theory one can consider the method used by the
slaveholders to justify slavery. They used to suggest that the black people were basically
inferior to whites hence preferred slavery to freedom.
The supporters of functionalism, justify the discrimination and racism as these can
contribute positively to proper functioning of the society. These concepts strengthen bonds
among the in-group members by ostracising the out group people (Alexandra et al. 2013).
Thus the community can increase individuality though reducing the permit for access of the

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK3
outsiders. On the contrary, the dysfunction connected with maintain racial barrier includes
failure to utilise the talents possessed by the subjugated community. Without taking
advantage of the talents, the society spend time, effort and resources to maintain separation
and inequality between the privileged and unprivileged class (Mathews 2017).
Marxist perspectives:
According to the revolutionary theory of Marxism, there is a complicated connection
between the capitalism and racism. Capitalism largely depends on the concept of racism
because both are the source of profiteering and basically used for the creating division to rule.
Racism is seen to be a force for driving a wedge between the workers who have everything in
common, every cause to ally and unite together (Murji and Solomos 2015). In such case,
these workers can be perpetually divided through this racism aspect ad serve the advantage of
the ruling class. For the Marxists, diversity consciousness in items of racism, can be potential
to create division among a multi-ethnic, multi-racial yet a unified working class.
The concept of new racism was proposed by the neo-Marxists who focussed on the
cultural differences to be the reason of racism rather than the biological origin. The concept
of racism initially developed to give justification and explanation of the practice of
enslavement of the Africans. It is due to fact that they were accepted as less than human
hence deprived to freedom or liberty and any kind of rights (Alexandra et al. 2013). As the
theory of Marxism reveals, the entire concept and operation of capitalism is based on
exploitation of the ‘many’ by the ‘few’. Capitalism is a system which sustains depending on
gross inequality. Hence the exploiters need various tools to create and maintain this division
among the working class majority. Among these tools, racism serves the best for carrying on
oppression. It also follows the Weberian theory where class, power and status serve to be
main factors for maintaining the class difference. It is used to justify as well as explain the

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK4
unequal distribution of health in the society where the minorities get enriched with the labour
of the majority working class people (Murji and Solomos 2015). However, the extensive
utilisation of racism did not only create path for exploitation of the slaves, it was expanded
among the English and Irish factory workers in terms of anti-immigrant ideas.
Symbolic interactionism:
This particular theory is one of the most celebrated contributions to the sociological
perspective of racism. For the symbolic interactionists, ethnicity and race provide intrepid
symbols as the sources of identity. According to the interactionists, all the symbols of race in
the interactions of people lead to racism (Stolcke 2013). As proposed by the most popular
interactionist Herbert Blumer, the concept of racism initiates as well as gets popularity
through the interactions among the group members of the dominant group without which
others would not hold racist views (Liu and Pompper 2012). These interactions do not
contain any positive interaction about the subordinate group members but contribute to a
different abstract picture of that subordinate group. It allows other dominant sections to
continue to support this reduced views about the subordinates thus maintain a status quo. The
acceptability of internationalism is so fast and deep that an individual can easily hold a
concept about one particular group through the interactions in popular media. This belief is
based on the images conveyed by the interaction and he or she unquestionably believe that
shared idea about that particular group to be true because the individual has never personally
met or interacted with any member of that group (Robinson-Wood 2016).
The concept of racism can also be defined as a useful tool for realising how the idea
of race can shape the social interaction (Lipman 2015). Symbolic internationalism defining
racism is a perspective through which people define one particular race and ethnicity.
However, in most of the cases, these interactions bear negative connotation about one
particular group which the society wants to dominate. The problem in symbolic

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK5
internationalism lies in the fact that people lose the capacity of self-scripting outside the
conditions decided by the dominant community. Hence, the capacity to script other variations
of perception about self, loss their way and get confined within the territory set by the higher
social order (Robinson-Wood 2016). This is the reason the identity of self gets polarised by
the social interactions and the difference grows with time.
Critical theory:
This theory was emerged from the concept of inequality and the struggle followed by
it. It emerged in the post-modern period. This theory is applied in the inequalities resulting
from identity difference from the perspective gender, education, social class, ethnicity,
complexion, origin and race. As originated from the cultural and racial differences, the
struggle paved path for the constant conflict between the white ruling class and the black
racial minorities (Spencer 2014). The chief reason of such conflict was that the ruling class
constantly perceived threat from the minorities and tried to supress them at any cost. In the
late 19th century, the civil war resulted in the rising of the black’s social and political power
which was later curbed by differ types of laws by the whites.
The famous feminist sociologist Patricia Collins developed another aspect of this
critical theory which is called intersection theory (Sturgeon 2016). In the process of
understanding race or ethnicity, the advantage and disadvantage are to be discussed but
before judging its impact on the society it is vital to acknowledge the way people understand
the race is designed. In this theory Collins had stated that one cannot separate the impact of
race, gender, class, sexual orientation, education, culture and other attributes which are the
factors to share the concept of race (Bolin and Kurtz 2018). These multiple layers of
disadvantages intersect with one another, to create the way for understanding the concept of
race. Despite the fact that the distinguished identity of different race and ethnicity which

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK6
ultimately resulted in struggle, some critics follow the positive side to this struggle. To them
it is a constructive process that helps the community to perform better and develop.
Critical thinking of binary opposites exemplifies the relation between two related
terms which are opposite in their own connotations. Through this system, two opposing
factors can be directly defined. In the perspective of racism, this term is vital for
understanding the gap between opposing factors (Downing 2015). This gap is the
distinguishing factor that helps the community to identify themselves in one particular
symbol or word. The racism inherits its negative connotation from this identification where
the whites differentiate them from blacks the majority from minority. Totalising concepts are
one of the major outcome of post structuralism, postmodernist thoughts, deconstructionism
and post colonialism (Kok et al. 2017). In any society, the presence of manifold of power
aims to create and maintain the distance between the majority and minority. This idea of
marinating power distance leads to the subjugation of the subordinates and creates a totalising
effect (Kaya 2017). Due to this reason, diversity of small cultures become submerged or
engulfed by the domination powerful factor thus lose distinction.
This constant intention to emphasis sameness and equality are the primary factor of
creating causes of conflict or struggle between classes. Essentialist linguistic categorisation
focuses on the language to be the most potential to create the negativity of racism (Ladson-
Billings and Tate 2016). The language creates an essentialist stance and becomes the most
import factor for any cultural group. Racial fluidity allows people to mix with other races
where the intercultural marriages take place. It guarantees the peaceful coexistence of
numerous races in one society (Downing 2015). Cultural pluralism also supports this view
where the smaller ethnic groups reside in a large society but maintain their cultural identities
and values. The concept of domination is organised into a coherent and unitary strategic form
so that the minorities can be challenged sharply and find no way to flourish.

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Race and ethnicity in Irish context:
The anti-Irish sentiment refers to the racism, oppression, persecution, discrimination,
bigotry and hatred to the Irish people as a nation or a particular ethnic group. It can be
directed against the nationalism of Ireland as well as against the Irish emigrants. The concept
of anti-Irish sentiment aims to demonstrate the racist behaviours against the Irish descendants
in the Irish diaspora (Bressey and Dwyer 2012). These derogatory attitudes of racism and
ethnicity towards the Irish people was deeply rooted in the medieval period and shows
evidence after the Irish immigration to the UK, south Africa, North America and Australia
along with New Zealand. Irish racism in the Victorian Britain included stereotyping of Irish
emigrants to be violent and alcoholic. They were accused with cronyism which subjected
them to the misinterpretation of their religious belief.
After the great famine, anti-Irish prejudice became more intense. The great number of
Irish immigrants who came across the Irish sea and settled down in the poorer districts of the
Great Britain, became the victims of physical violation. This became common practice when
the Irish people were barred from public house and jobs with all other employment
opportunity only because they had Irish accent or name (Bressey and Dwyer 2012). In recent
times, the situation has changed there have been different laws to reduce the cases of
exposure in terms of anti-Irish sentiment. The renown British people have been entertaining
anti-Irish prejudice even in live television programs as they are getting support from British
nationalist groups. The anti-Irish marches have been used as an excuse to attack and
intimidate the Irish immigrants. Under this circumstances, providing all-inclusive care to
these long deprived people have become really difficult for the social care practitioners
(Rampton 2017). The communities, families and individuals have a deep rooted experience of
extensive abuses hence the evolution of social policies and discursive practices become

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK8
valueless to them for which the social practitioners were working hard to reach them. The
issues of racism and ethnicity are the greatest barrier for the practitioners to serve them.
Ethnicity and Social Work Practice with Individuals:
A major aim of the social work practice around the globe are more or less same that is
to serve the families and groups suffering from some kind of deprivation in the social
structure. It is the effort to enhance the social functioning along with all-encompassing well-
being (Kok et al. 2017). On the part of the social workers, voluntarily or involuntarily get
affected by the diversity of culture as well as social norms. The ethnic values are capable to
pervade the whole process of their works starting from the decision making process for
asking help to the issues of confidentiality for assistance. There again the issues of
determining the definition of client evolve which create dilemma in the minds of the social
workers. In this aspect of social care services, there remains the cultural gap between the
service giver and seeker (Leslie 2017). This aspects of cultural and ethnic gap are also a
determinant of the efficiency of the social care practitioners.
The effectiveness of the non-ethnic social worker dealing with the problems of the
ethnic individuals basically depends upon their capabilities to understand the issues with
community then offer services which are responsive as well as responsible to their culture
(Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler and Keyes 2014). In such cases, the social care practitioners take
the assistance of the translators introduces the third person which often affect the relationship
between the assistance giver and the seeker. This can also affect the responses of the
assistance seekers as they cannot open up before everybody. It is the factor of trust which has
proved to be one of the most critical factor for the relationship between the helper and client
can be developed only when the helper sees and feels the issues of the client through clear
ethnic lens (Betancourt et al. 2016). It is however essential for proper understanding of the

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK9
expectation from the side of the client which will ultimately help to overcome the racial and
ethnic barrier that create impedance in the helping process.
Social care practice has been proved to be one of the most important profession to
have capacity to impact change. The social care practitioners are responsible to provide
service to the low-income people and fight for social justice but they are having problem to
discuss the issues of race and class as these are the most sensitive issue in any society (Banks,
Suárez-Orozco and Ben-Peretz 2016). In dealing with the young generation of Irish victims in
the UK and other places, the social care practitioners come across the issue of considerable
resilience. In deflecting the effect of racism, the majority of people are expressing eagerness
for finding ways to contest the endemic societal nature as well as tolerance of racism (Chae et
al. 2014).
Ethnicity and Social Work with Groups:
People are born in groups, developed in them and most importantly contribute in the
group identity. In this aspect individuality is considered to be a part of large group. This
group is a category of people who identify each other based on the similarities like common
ancestry, nation or cultural heritage (Downes, Rock and McLaughlin 2016). Hence a problem
with any group member directly contacts the community and affect the distinguished identity.
This group experiences are categorised through the ethnic lens which is generally constructed
by distinguished ethnic identity. This however, includes the shared meanings, symbols,
vocabulary and constructs (Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler and Keyes 2014). This is the reason
why the ethnicity of the social care practitioner is important in serving the client group. This
aspect of ethnicity of the service provider is necessary as this may affect on the positive and
negative responses of the group in one hand and the appropriate evaluation of problems of the
service seeking community.

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK10
Both positive and negative impact depend upon the similarity as well as differences
between the gibers and seekers. As mentioned before, in the ethnic groups there are factors
like group solidarity as well as individual attainments are appreciated differently within the
ethnic groups and if any of the group members violate historic norms, is perceived to be great
shame of the group members (Cox and Ephross 2009). Moreover, some of the major ethnic
groups in the word have their own set of values regarding self-expression and own style of
democratic ruling. This is where the social care practitioners feel limitation of knowledge
hence cannot serve comprehensively. In the case of social discrimination and racism on the
Irish community in various other states where they are minority group, the social care
practitioners keep wide field of vision which allow them to understand the issues regarding
the violation and discrimination along with deprivation of social wealth that affect the whole
community.
Ethnicity and Families: families all over the world transmit their culture as they teach to
socialise their members how to behave feel and speak. Through these, families transmit their
own ethnicity to their next generations as they share their histories and unique identities. The
traditional families have their own set of ideology which they transmit so that their children
do not face discrimination and carry on their heritage (Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler and Keyes
2014). This is the reason why the traditional families have stricter norms regarding
socialisation. The patters they follow to behave with regards to their sex roles, patriarchal
power and familial division of labour. With the change of time and technology, many
traditional families have started to adapt themselves with the changing society to survive in
such cases, their traditionalism have been compromised.
In many cases, the social care practitioners find it difficult to deal with the elder
members of a traditional family because there is a huge generation gap between them and
their next generation. The reason of struggle is different for these two parties hence fail to

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK11
connect with each other. Moreover, these traditional families record the highest issues of
crime as well as committing suicide. In addition to this, news of drug addiction is very much
pervasive in the communities. Therefore, the practitioners try to find commonality in dealing
with the families so that they can perceive their problems through the similar perspectives. In
some cases, the social care practitioners face problems regarding the mobility of the families
which become necessary for one of their family members but convincing them is a hard job
(Lipman 2015). The problems originated from the family conflict is also a vital matter where
the family members do not allow the social care practitioners to enter and assist them. The
traditional families are deprived of the social supports provided by the local and national
governments but while guiding these traditional families, victim of racism, the social care
practitioners find difficulties in implementing the social care facilities (Betancourt et al.
2016). Due to different ideologues and values, the cultural gap remains predominant in
dealing with traditional families.
Ethnicity and migration:
The issue of migration is one common cause for discrimination in the society. The
migration from Ireland to Britain due to famine and unemployment, is the second most
common form of discrimination (Mathews 2017). The migrant workers have been deprived
of accessing the national or state employment because of the issues of racism. As the data has
revealed the Irish workers face three times more discrimination in terms of employment and
the black workers experience seven times of discrimination. More than 32% of permit holders
reported the cases of harassment as well as insults in the workplaces (Bakan, and Dua 2014).
Despite the fact that the national governments have different types of employee laws to
maintain order in the public as well as private companies, these migrant workers seem to be
vulnerable to the issues of racism in their workplaces which often result to abuse, punishment
and wage deduction. According to the social care practitioners, these migrant workers are

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK12
exploited hence cannot assert their employment rights. Moreover, the working permits binds
these workers in such a way that they cannot move out of the employers hence exacerbates
the range of vulnerability.
The social care petitioners face problem while dealing with these migrant workers in
different ways. First of all, convincing them to avail social care is quite difficult. First of all,
the workers are treated as asylum seekers hence treated less favourably in the workplaces.
This is one of the chief reason of increasing case of depression and suicide attempts. The care
practitioners apply the method of counselling so that these migrant workers can avail the laws
to secure their interests. The workers form another country work under extreme exploitation
and often forced labour. Their workplace is unwelcoming which is sharply divided on ethnic
lines adding fuels to racial tension. The women working under racial issues, experience of
sexual harassment, unequal pay and pregnancy-related discrimination which create
problematic situation for the social care practitioners to help through various anti-racism
regulations (Bolin and Kurtz 2018). Accessing the public services is impossible for the
traditional communities. The social care practitioners point out the difficulties faced by the
efficient employees while competing with the common competitors (Spencer 2014). In
addition to this, unequal treatment in accessing the public services has direct connection with
experience as well as social status of any ethnic group or individual. Despite the fact that the
most frontline service providers aim to provide or deliver public services without any
discrimination or prejudice, the social care practitioners face problems to claim them for
assisting the deprived communities (Alexandra et al. 2013). Due to the absence of the
deprived class in the policy making procedure in terms of racism, the constantly shaping
policies are devoid of any supportive policies without prejudice. The social workers hence
face difficulties to communicate and guide the migrant workers to empower themselves
instead of pushed further into poverty (Arato 2016).

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK13
Ethnicity and Health:
As mentioned before the moral, ethnic and traditional boundaries of the diverse
communities determine that the ethnic communities are always rigid in the cases of health
care issues. They have own set of values and religious beliefs that do not allow them to avail
all kinds of health care facilities provided by the government (Banks, Suárez-Orozco and
Ben-Peretz 2016). Health as well as health care are one of the most complicated issues that
the social care practitioners face while serving the people of different race and ethnic. These
health care issues are further complicated by the ethic norms of that can deeply influence the
behaviours, health status, attitudes and proper service utilization. The cultural values of
different traditional communities can be influential in perceiving the issues of illness and
their symptoms. It directly affects the decision making procedure and the responses of
tackling with the illness and symptoms along with the choice of treatments (Gabbidon 2015).
This is the reason why the proper understanding of the cultural definitions of ailment
and the factors associated with the usage of medical care are the prerequisite for scheming
operative, efficient and responsive health care system by the government of the countries.
The issues regarding the health of the women are to be discussed in the health care systems
because in most cases the family structure and traditional views of neglect the issues of
women health (Atun et al. 2015). The high mortality rate during pregnancy and afterwards
have disclosed the impact of careless views and beliefs in most of the traditional families.
Moreover, as the data reveals that as the traditional families are chiefly migrants or
unemployed, they do not have proper access to national health care system. One of the most
problematic situation that the practitioners face is the inaccessibility to the information of
illness where traditional attitudes influence the perception of symptoms and treatment
(Akinboro et al. 2016).

RACE AND ETHNICITY IN SOCIAL WORK14
Therefore, it can be concluded that the issues of race and ethnicity are chief causes of
discrimination around the world. The value system, beliefs, culture and identities play vital
role in identification of different communities in different places. There are different reasons
why these traditional groups have been originated and remain secluded from the common
people of a nation. Some of these communities enjoy more privileges than the other but in
some places they are abused and become victim of discrimination and exploitation. This
essay has discussed four theories such as functionalism, Marxist and neo-Marxist theory and
critical theory in order to understand the reasons of deprivation of people on the basis of race
and ethnicity. There are various issues that the social care practitioners face while serving
these ethnic communities among which the collection of information becomes one of the
most vital barrier. Due to difference of culture as well as language there are problems of
communication which prevent the carers to reach the communities more efficiently.
However, the situation has been changing and the communities are trying to cope up with the
modern world with all their facilities provided by the government agencies and organisations.

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