Recycling Wastewater: A Comprehensive Guide to Methods and Challenges

The assignment content focuses on the importance of water recycling to achieve a rate of 8000 MLD by 2025. It highlights the challenges and opportunities in implementing water recycling projects, including institutional barriers, varying agency priorities, and public misperception. The content also emphasizes the need for early planning, community engagement, and technology adoption to ensure successful implementation. Furthermore, it stresses the importance of non-potable urban reuse of wastewater and irrigation as a stepping stone towards potable reuse.

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Recycling Waste Water
By ‘Author Name’
Affiliation (MSc Profile or Track) & Study no.
Executive Summary
The current project emphasizes upon recycling waste water which has become the need of the
hour. The contents of this project provide avenues to study various issues dealing with current
water management and highlight various challenges in addressing them. With the central theme
of waste water management, the main aim of this project is to augment the understanding of its
readers about the global developments in the field of waste water management and inspire to
undertake viable state-of-the-art methods of recycling waste water. This report concentrates on
the main water users, namely public water supply including households, agriculture and industry.
This research is based on a large literature review and data analysis of existing studies and
experiences of water savings in countries like US, Australia and Japan. This literature review is
complemented by case studies that illustrate the feasibility of implementation and likely impacts
of potential water savings measures. The study presents theoretical content on recycling waste
water and also critically makes an attempt to showcase potential grey areas where there is barrier
for implementation of waste water recycle systems. The scenario in case of developed countries
is different than developing countries which are reluctant to employ water reuse technology due
to cost factor and lack of public awareness. During research study it was revealed that there is a
high data gaps and data uncertainty in estimating today’s water abstraction and consumption,
current applications of water saving technologies or future trends in water consumption and
withdrawals. Thus, analysis presented in this report provides an order of magnitude of the water
recycle potential but detailed figures should be used with caution. In addition, a detailed analysis
would be necessary to take into account the regional specificities of water uses.
1. Introduction
Water is, unarguably, an utmost important commodity in our day to day lives. Its importance can
be attributed to the fact that many ancient civilizations flourished or perished because of its
availability or scarcity. Today’s most populous inhabited areas of the world are located near
water resources. It is a fact that water usage has grown significantly in recent years owing to
rapid economic development. According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) it
is predicted that water withdrawal will rise by 50 percent in developing countries and 18 percent
in developed countries by 2025.

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This increase in water usage makes water scarcity a serious issue for many countries especially
those that frequently experience periods of drought and other environmental challenges. With
increasing urban population, changing lifestyles and industrialization, the quality of water has
deteriorated over the years and hence there is a serious requirement of its treatment before it can
be recycled for any purpose. The main sources of water pollution are due to industrial activities,
domestic and agricultural activities and other environmental and global changes. Both the surface
and ground water are getting contaminated at many places of the world and are not fit for
drinking and other consumption purposes. Water supply is also reported to be dwindling in many
areas of the world due to overexploitation of existing water resources including ground water. It
is estimated that by 2020, the global population will reach up to 7.9 billion mark and
consequently world may experience greater scarcity of water. Hence, there’s been a continuous
effort by mankind to improve and preserve its quality.
In view of this, attempts have been made to compare various water treatment and recycling
technologies. Efforts have also been carried out to introduce an approach for water treatment and
recycling methods. A comparison of the technologies has been presented by discussing their
performance, sludge production, life period and operation. The purpose of this research work is to
provide guidelines for the selection of the technologies or their combinations for various
applications so that one can select the exact and correct technology depending upon the
requirement and prevailing local conditions.
2. State-of-the-art/Literature Review
Traditionally, industries and processes were envisaged and designed without the consideration of
wastes that they would produce or the potential environmental impact that they have on ecology
(Unnikrishnan and Hegde, 2005). During the course of time legislation were enacted and
established and compliance issues evolved, the wastewater treatment industry began taking
shape, with an end-of-pipe treatment focus that aimed at cleaning up the combined wastewater
prior to discharge (Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2000). Based on the type and concentration of the
specific contaminants present in waste water, the treatment level for wastewater defined as
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary with unit operations classified as physical,
chemical, thermal and biological (Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2000).
The perspective of water usage has also changed for industry because as water has become
scarcer, energy costs have risen and discharge regulations more stringent. Strategies involving
wastewater reuse and/or recycling, directly impact on freshwater inputs and wastewater outputs
requiring treatment (Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2000; Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2001).
Eventually, the concept of zero discharge was born (Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2000).
Two approaches are often used to reduce or minimize adverse impacts associated with treating
and disposal of industrial wastes these being the ‘end of pipe’ and the ‘cleaner production’
approach. An end of pipe approach focuses on cleaning up the wastes or emissions after they

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have been produced (Hilson, 2000b; Zbontar and Glavic, 2000) which has been the traditional approach
towards meeting imposed discharge limits (Savelski and Bagajewicz, 2000; Savelski and Bagajewicz,
2001). Typically wastewater treatment operations are designed to remove “…settleable, suspended, and
dissolved solids, organic matter, metals, nutrients and pathogens from wastewater” (Mujeriego and Asano,
1999). These end-of-pipe approaches have proven inadequate for firms to meet minimisation and
compliance goals, compared to preventative approaches (Hilson, 2000b). Eastwood and Tainsh (1999)
accurately state:
Don’t solve an End-Of-Pipe problem with an End-Of-Pipe solution. Unless
you have explored the In-process solutions, your End-Of-Pipe solution could
be the worst solution to your problem!
‘Cleaner production’ is also referred to as pollution prevention (Taylor, 2005) and is a proactive
preventative measure supporting sustainable development that is integrated into the process
design to achieve significant environmental improvement (Jia et al., 2005). It adds to the bottom
line in terms of conserving energy, materials and manpower while increasing yields and
decreasing treatment and disposal costs (Unnikrishnan and Hegde, 2005). As expressed by
Eastwood and Tainsh (1999), “good solutions often do more than save water” as they can also
reduce capital investment and recover raw materials otherwise lost. Reclaimed water, as an
alternative water supply, also has an economic value (Mujeriego and Asano, 1999).
Unnikrishnan and Hegde (2005) in their research has laid down some proven cleaner production
approaches used by manufacturing industries, which are as oinclude:
 Better management of material and energy flows More efficient process control Optimization of reactor and process conditions In-process recycle-reuse of by-products and solvents Recovery of waste thermal energy
3. Research Question, Aim/Objectives and Sub-goals
This proposal work is intended to lend an insight into waste water treatment and recycling
techniques. So readers might be curious to know what, why and how of waste water recycling.
One may typically ask what is meant by recycling of waste water? Why recycling is needed?
What are the ways of recycling of waste water? How it is exactly done? What are the pros & cons
of such techniques?
So, basically the central aim of this project is to study various issues related to water management
and its usage and draw upon various prevalent and viable techniques for recycling of waste water.
The same has been attempted to achieve through literature study and dousing various research
journals and publications. This research makes an attempt to presents the gaps in wastewater
research, the conceptual framework for the research and the methodology that can be used to

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tackle the problems associated with wastewater in both developing and developed countries
framework.
The central component of this approach is the physical pathway through which wastewater is
generated, collected, treated and distributed, which is the common component for all the
countries irrespective of their economic status. It is then argued that the emphasis on different
phases of this pathway depends on the level of development in any region. As regions become
more developed they concentrate on factors further down the pathway.
4. Theoretical Content/Methodology
Recycling wastewater is a process of treating, converting wastewater into purified water that can
be reused for other purposes. The purified water thus reclaimed can be reused for irrigation
purposes, replenishing surface water and groundwater recharge. It can also be used to satisfy
certain residential needs like toilet flushing, gardening, and if treated properly for drinking water
standards.
Instead of using freshwater supplies, recycling waste water for reuse applications can be a water-
saving measure. Discharging used water back into natural water sources can still have benefits to
ecosystems. For e.g. natural water cycle usage could include recharging aquifers, improving
stream flow, sustaining plant life.
Traditionally, wastewater reuse has been a long-established practice for irrigation and related
activities in arid and semi arid countries. Reusing wastewater through recycling has been
considered a part of sustainable water management which makes recycle waste water an
alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce demand for water and minimise
pressures on groundwater and other natural water resources.
A typical pathway of wastewater consists of four phases:
A. Wastewater generation: Wastewater generated in the urban areas is huge and continues to
grow over time with increasing urbanization and changing lifestyles. As cities are the centers of
economic and political powerhouse, their water requirements usually receive a higher priority.
However, such cities are subject to physical and economic scarcity constraints. Increases in urban
water supply ensure increased wastewater generation. The depleted fraction of domestic and
residential water use is typically only 15-25% and the remainder returns to wastewater (Scott et
al. 2004).
B. Wastewater collection: Most cities in the developing world are only partially sewered,
resulting in substantial volumes of wastewater (including toilet wastes) finding their way into
surface water networks within cities. On an average only 28% of the population in the developing
world in large cities is actually sewered, whereas more than 90% of the population is sewered in
developed countries (WHO and UNICEF 2000).
C. Wastewater treatment: The sewage network is used to bring wastewater to the treatment
plant. It can then be treated to primary, secondary or tertiary levels before it is discharged for

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further use or returned to a natural water body. Wastewater treatment is an expensive process,
both in terms of the land required and the energy consumed. The percentage of total sewered
wastewater that actually undergoes treatment to secondary level is 35% in Asia. Almost no
sewerage is treated in Africa and more than 65% is treated in developed countries (WHO and
UNICEF 2000).
D. Wastewater discharge/use/recycling: In most developing countries, wastewater receives
little or no treatment and is discharged into a river or lake from which farmers divert it into the
fields to grow different crops. In many of the developed countries, wastewater is being recycled
in a number of sectors other than agriculture for various reasons, but only after suitable treatment
and guidelines are in place for recycling.
4.1 Types and application of waste water recycling
There are two types of waste water recycle and reuse options currently gaining prevalence
depending upon the approach used: (a) direct potable reuse (DPR) and (b) indirect potable reuse
(IPR). While DPR and IPR both involve a proactive decision to transform treated wastewater into
drinking water, all water is eventually reused in some sense in a conventional water treatment
system.
In case of IPR, water reuse is done by releasing treated wastewater into groundwater or surface
water sources with the intent of using it for drinking water supplies. And, then it is reclaimed and
treating to meet drinking water standards. In case of DPR, treated wastewater which is purified, is
introduced directly into a municipal water supply system without an environmental “buffer” of
any kind.
Most of the uses of water reclamation are non potable uses such as: washing cars, flushing toilets,
cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and
public parks, and for hydraulic fracturing. Wherever this system is applicable, a dual piping
system is run to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water.
The main applications of recycled waste water in the world are shown below:
 Agricultural reuse- In this type of reuse application, recycled water is used for irrigation
of non food crops, such as fodder and fiber , commercial nurseries, and pasture lands.
High-quality reclaimed water is used for irrigating food crops.
 Urban reuse- In this type of reuse application, recycled water is used for the irrigation of
school yards, public parks, residential medians, and highway medians. It is also used for
fire protection and toilet flushing in commercial and industrial buildings.
 Environmental reuse- It is used for enhancing natural wetlands, creating artificial
wetlands, and sustaining stream flows.
 Recreational impoundments- It is used for making pond sand lakes.
 Industrial reuse- In process industries it is used as process or makeup water and as
cooling tower water.

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(Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reclaimed_water)
4.2 Benefits of recycling waste water
Wastewater reuse is considered an alternative water source. It has the potential to provide
significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are considered key motivators for
implementing such waste water reuse programs. Specifically, in agriculture, irrigation with
wastewater may contribute to improve production yields, reduce the ecological footprint and
promote socioeconomic benefits. These benefits include:
 Reduced manufacturing costs of using high quality reclaimed water
 Drinking water substitution - keep drinking water for drinking and reclaimed water for
non-drinking use (i.e. industry, cleaning, irrigation, domestic uses, toilet flushing, etc.)
 Increased water availability and increased agricultural production (i.e. crop yields)
 Reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment, and distribution of
water compared to using deep groundwater resources, water importation or desalination
 Reduced over-exploitation of surface and groundwater
 Reduced application of fertilizers (i.e. conservation of nutrients, reducing the need for
artificial fertilizer (e.g. soil nutrition by the nutrients existing in the treated effluents))
 Reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters (i.e. rivers, canals and other surface water
resources)
 Enhanced environmental protection by restoration of streams, wetlands and ponds
 Increased employment and local economy through tourism, agriculture etc
4.3 Distribution of reclaimed waste water
Non-potable reclaimed water is usually distributed with a system of dual piping network that
where reclaimed water pipes re kept completely separate from potable water pipelines.
In many cities which use reclaimed water, consumers are only allowed to use it on assigned days.
Some cities that previously offered unlimited reclaimed water at a discounted rate are now
beginning to charge citizens by the amount they use.
4.4 Treatment processes
For many types of reuse applications wastewater must pass through numerous sewage
treatment process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling,
biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection.
There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these
technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is
hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria and viruses. The following are some of the typical
technologies employed for waste water reclaimation:
A. Ozone waste water treatment: Ozone wastewater treatment is a method that is increasing in
popularity. An ozone generator is used to break down pollutants in the water source.

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 The generators convert oxygen into ozone by using ultraviolet radiation or by an
electric discharge field.
 Ozone is a very reactive gas that can oxidise bacteria, moulds, organic material and
other pollutants found in water.
 Using ozone to treat wastewater has many benefits:
o Kills bacteria effectively.
o Oxidises substances such as iron and sulphur so that they can be filtered out of
the solution.
o There are no nasty odours or residues produced from the treatment.
o Ozone converts back into oxygen quickly, and leaves no trace once it has been
used.
 The disadvantages of using ozone as a treatment for wastewater are:
o The treatment requires energy in the form of electricity; this can cost money
and cannot work when the power is lost.
o The treatment cannot remove dissolved minerals and salts.
o Ozone treatment can sometimes produce by-products such as bromate that can
harm human health if they are not controlled.
(Source: http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/ozonewastewatertreatment.html)
B. Ultrafilteration- Ultrafiltration (UF) is a membrane filtration method in which pressure or
concentration gradients lead to a separation of pure water through a semi permeable membrane.
Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained in the so-called retentate,
while pure water pass through the membrane in the permeate.
C. Aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor)- An aerobic treatment system is a small scale
sewage treatment system which uses aerobic process of digestion. These systems are commonly
found in rural areas where public sewers are not available, and may be used for a single residence
or for a small group of homes.
D. Other waste water reclaimation methods are Forward Osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced
oxidation.
Wastewater when it is used for irrigation is generally treated to only secondary level treatment .
A pump station is usually established which distributes reclaimed water to users around the city.
This may include cooling towers, golf courses, agricultural uses, or in landfills.
4.5 Alternative options
In some cases rather than treating and recycling wastewater for reuse applications, there exist
other options that have the potential freshwater savings. Such options are:
 Greywater usage - At the household level, greywater thus generated may be used to water the
garden or to flush toilets.
 Rainwater harvesting and stormwater recovery- During monsoon season, rainwater
harvesting is usually done through Urban design systems which reduce runoff and are known

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as Low Impact Development (LID) in the United States, Sustainable urban drainage
systems (SUDS) in the United Kingdom and Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in
Australia .
 Seawater desalination – It is an energy-intensive process in which salt and other minerals are
discarded from seawater to obtain potable water for drinking and irrigation purposes,
typically through membrane filtration (reverse-osmosis), and steam-distillation.
4.6 Costs
In many regions of the world where a fresh water supply is plentiful, the cost of recycled water
exceeds that of potable water. However, in order to encourage its use reclaimed water is usually
sold to citizens at a cheaper rate. In future when fresh water supplies would become limited from
distribution costs, increased population demands, or climate change reducing sources, the cost
economics would also evolve. The need of reclaimed water needs to be evaluated in order to
consider the entire water supply system, as it will play an important value in deciding flexibility
of the overall system. Reclaimed water system through recycling waste water usually require
a dual piping network, often with additional storage tanks, which adds to the total costs of the
system.
4.7 Barriers to implementation of waste water recycling
 In many countries its full-scale implementation and operation still face regulatory,
economic, social and institutional challenges.
 Economic viability of water recycling systems.
 Additional cost incurred in water quality monitoring and identification of contaminants.
 Full cost recovery from water reuse schemes - lack of financial water pricing systems
comparable to already subsidized conventional treatment plants.
5. Experimental Set-up
In order to augment the understanding and to appreciate the problem so that readers can be better
informed and critical of any limitations a summary of reuse of waste water in the world is
presented over here in different countries.
5.1 USA
USA has a long established waste water recycle management system in place where sewage reuse
scheme for non-potable residential and other uses are practiced through dual reticulation systems.
In the city of Altamonte Springs, near Orlando, the motivation to build waste water reuse system
arises from concerns about maintaining the lake water quality which received the treated
wastewater of the city. Also there was a need to limit withdrawals of potable water from the
Central Florida groundwater aquifer. Withdrawal of wastewater for the reclamation purpose is
done from the isolated sewer lines which collect wastewater predominantly from residential
areas. This waste water has been reported low in salinity. The treatment of waste water thus
collected includes following process:

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 Primary treatment through sedimentation tanks
 Secondary treatment which is biological in nature and includes nitrification systems
 Chemical treatment like coagulation, filtration, re-aeration and high-level disinfection
 Polishing of waste water for de-chlorination and acidity control
 Trenchless technology was employed with small-diameter pipes for delivery of reclaimed
water to desired sites
Some 45K people are served by this scheme and the reclaimed water thus obtained from
treatment is used for the irrigation of lawns in industrial, commercial and public buildings like
public hospitals, as well as open space irrigation. Other usage of this reclaimed water includes
supplies to office and apartment buildings for toilet flushing, once through cooling in industries.
This reclaimed water is also used for automobile washing, controlling water level in lakes, water
falls, public fountains. Nearly 30– 40% of the total water consumption is met by this dual
reticulation system, which supplies about 45 Ml per day of reclaimed water. Extensive public
consultation was carried out by the authorities coupled with forceful advocacy on the part of
city’s water supply authority has resulted in a general public acceptance about the scheme.
Ordinance amended was also initiated to enforce compulsory connection to reclaimed water
distribution network. However, initial apprehensions about public health risks was there but later
it was misplaced, as no public health impact had been reported in the first 6 years of operation
from 1989 to 1995.
5.2 Japan
Japan has a long history of planned wastewater reclamation and reuse, the first of which dates
back to 1951, when secondary treated effluent of the Mikawashima wastewater treatment plant in
Tokyo was experimentally used for paper manufacturing in a paper mill nearby. Today, Japan has
well developed policies and programs for wastewater recycle and reuse, to promote water
pollution control, environmental protection, and amenities for urban environment. Treated
wastewater has also been used for washing passenger trains, and as plant water in solid waste
incineration plants. The water reuse projects are favored as they stimulate private sector
investment in such works as installing drainage and flush-toilet facilities, thereby creating
economic side benefits.
5.2.3 Tokyo
The water demand for this newly developed business district has been largely coped up with the
supply of reclaimed wastewater through a dual reticulation system. Secondary treated wastewater
forms the influent to the water recycling system. The recycling system is made up of rapid sand
filters, pumping facilities, force mains, recycling center that house distribution reservoir and
distribution pump, distribution network. The Shinjuku water distribution center is located in the
basement of a hotel. Because of its location, noise, odor and other nuisances are strictly
controlled. The system supplies reclaimed water to the 19 high-rise buildings that house
commercial and office premises, up to a daily maximum of 8000 KL, since 1991. The Tokyo
Metropolitan Government, in an effort to promote water conservation, and wastewater
reclamation, introduced increasing block rate structure of water and waste charges. All new
buildings were requested to provide dual system, for the use of reclaimed water. By setting up
20% lower water charge for the reclaimed water; its use has been encouraged. The Fukuoka city
comprises a population of over 1.3 million, and covers an area of about 340 sq.km. Due to the

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non-availability of stable water source either through large rivers or groundwater, for domestic
and industrial water supply, the Fukuoka City Council started vigorously promoting a water
conservation plan since 1979, which included wastewater reclamation and reuse. The city
reclaimed water supply amounting to 4500 KL per day in 1995, is planning to achieve the rate of
8000 KL/day by the end of the century.
5.4 Australia
It is estimated that recycling reclaimed water for residential non-potable usage have the enormous
potential to reduce residential water demands by an average of 40— 50% in most Australian
cities. Many pilot projects for dual reticulation schemes are undertaken in Australia. Social
surveys which were conducted in Melbourne corroborate the fact that people support recycling of
bathroom and laundry wastewater to curtail demand of fresh water. In Western Australia,
domestic grey water reuse has been an accepted option for future urban expansions. Commercial
recycle systems have already been installed in Rouse Hill, a suburban area near Sydney, and New
Haven in Southern Australia. The Rouse Hill waste water recycle scheme is a dual reticulation
system is Australia’s first full-scale application of the domestic non-potable reuse.
6. Results, Outcome and Relevance
From the research work undertaken, it is clear that there is a great need to follow the recourse of
water reuse and recycle to avoid future water scarcity. From the research study it is evident that
water recycling has many benefits and it is proven to be effective and successful in creating a
new and reliable water supply without compromising public health. It has been established that
treatment and recycling of waste and gray water requires far less energy than treating salt water
using a desalination system.
Non-potable waste water reuse is a widely accepted practice in many countries mostly developed
and that is expected to continue to grow. In line with this, in many parts of the world, the uses of
reclaimed and recycled water are expanding in order to accommodate the needs of the
environment and growing water supply demands. Planned indirect potable reuse has been
predicted to soon become more common due to advances in wastewater treatment technology and
health studies of indirect potable reuse.
It is also important to understand and establish that wastewater requirements of a region are
dependent on the level of development of the societies within which they operate. The underlying
assumption is that the degree of economic development of a region is a good indicator of the
needs for different aspects of water recycling. The correctness of this assumption has been tested
through a review of the literature. Literature has shown that in developing countries, a lack of
treatment is the main problem of wastewater use practices and hence a strategy is needed to
recover the costs of treatment from the different stakeholders. In developed countries, there is a
need to increase the efficiency of recycling to reduce the cost of supply of recycled water so that
it competes efficiently with alternate sources of water. The efficiency of recycling can be
improved through a number of strategies at different levels: at the treatment level through new
technologies; managing the demand and supply sides through information dissemination;
appropriate pricing; through appropriate allocation among different sectors like domestic,
industry, agriculture, recreation and environment. In the current paper, it is proposed to be done
by increasing the allocative efficiency of treated wastewater.

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Second, there is a necessity to develop the tools that allow for an evaluation of the feasibility of
water recycling at different stages of economic development. There is no reason to believe that
the tools that are required at one stage would be required at another. These tools should be based
on the rational economic principles that tradeoff the benefits and costs over a long period of time.
Finally, there is a need to illustrate and apply these tools in different settings.
While water recycling is a sustainable approach and can be cost-effective in the long term, the
treatment of wastewater for reuse and the installation of distribution systems at centralized
facilities can be initially expensive compared to such water supply alternatives as imported water,
ground water, or the use of gray water onsite from homes.
Institutional barriers, as well as varying agency priorities and public misperception, can make it
difficult to implement water recycling projects. Finally, early in the planning process, agencies
must reach out to the public to address any concerns and to keep the public informed and
involved in the planning process.
7. Project Planning and Gantt Chart
In order for any project to get executed it is utmost need to define the project milestone timelines
through project planning and Gantt chart. Below a Gantt chart is proposed for the Water
recycling project.

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8. Conclusions
With issues like increases in urban population, increased water consumption and demand from
competing sectors, climate change etc. waste water reuse is becoming an important strategy to
complement existing water resources in the context of both developing and developed countries.
In many parts of the world, agricultural irrigation using reclaimed water has been practiced for
many centuries. Landscape irrigation such as irrigation of golf courses, parks, playgrounds has
been successfully implemented in many urban areas for over 30 years.The case studies from
different countries presented are lessons, experiences, data and technology that can be shared for
mutual benefit.
As water demands and environmental needs grow, waste water recycling will play a greater role
in overall water supply. By working together to overcome obstacles, water recycling, along with
water conservation and efficiency can help to sustainably manage our vital water resources.
Communities and businesses should start working together to meet water resource requirement
locally in ways that expand resources, support the environment, and strengthen the economy
However, beyond non-potable urban reuse of waste water and irrigation, potable reuse (indirect
or direct) needs careful evaluation, close public scrutiny. From public health and acceptance
perspectives, non-potable water reuse options must be exhaustively explored prior to any
implementation of indirect or direct potable reuse in public domain.

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9. References
 WHO (World Health Organization) and UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s
Fund). 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. WHO/UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, New York.
 Radcliffe, J. (2004). Water recycling in Australia. Australian Academy of Technological
Sciences and Engineering, Parkville, Melbourne.
 Ogoshi, M.; Suzuki, Y.; Asano, T. (2001). Water use in Japan. Water Science and Technology
43(10): p.17-23
 Mitchell, R. C.; Carson, R. T. (1989). Using surveys to value public goods: the contingent
valuation method. Resources for Future. Washington DC.
 Gagliardo, P. (2003). Use of Reclaimed Water for Industrial Applications. Paper presented at the
Ozwater 2003 Convention and Exhibition, Perth, Australia
 Anderson, J.; Adin, A.; Crook, J.; Davis, C.; Hultquist, R.; Jimenez-Cisneros, B.; Kennedy, W.;
Sheikh, B.; van der Merwe, B. (2001). Climbing the ladder: a step by step approach to
international guidelines for water recycling. Water Science and Technology 43(10): p. 1-8.