Research and Methodology: Sampling, Correlation Design, and Validity Concerns

This article discusses the research and methodology used in psychology research, including the sampling technique, correlation research design, and validity concerns. It also provides a conceptual definition, rationale, hypothesis, and operational definition for income and financial security. The subject is psychology research, and the course code and college/university are not mentioned.

Research and
methodology

Table of Contents
Question 1...................................................................................................................................................3
What is/are the independent variable/s?...................................................................................................3
What is the dependent variable?..............................................................................................................3
What are the ethical considerations in this experiment and how might these be addressed?...................3
Why is it important for psychology researchers to submit their research proposals for ethical review
before commencing their research projects?............................................................................................3
Question 2...................................................................................................................................................4
Choose two psychological concepts that you think could be related (or correlated) to each other...........4
Provide a conceptual definition for each concept and write a brief rationale that describes why you
think the two variables might be related..................................................................................................4
State a hypothesis that flows from your rationale and includes both constructs......................................4
Provide an operational definition for the constructs you chose in the previous question.........................4
How would you measure these variables?...............................................................................................5
Differentiate between the reliability and validity of a measure. Using the operational definitions, you
provided in the second question discuss the following:...........................................................................5
Two methods for determining reliability.................................................................................................5
Two methods for determining validity.....................................................................................................5
Question 3...................................................................................................................................................6
Describe what sampling technique the university should use?................................................................6
Justify why you chose this sampling technique?.....................................................................................6
a) What are the advantages of this technique?.....................................................................................6
b) What are the disadvantages of this technique?.................................................................................6
Question 4...................................................................................................................................................7
What design will be used?.......................................................................................................................7
Justify why you have chosen this design?................................................................................................7
Who is involved?.....................................................................................................................................7
a) What will they do?...........................................................................................................................7
b)What are the validity concerns?............................................................................................................8
How will you address these validity concerns?.......................................................................................8
References...................................................................................................................................................9

Question 1
What is/are the independent variable/s?
Independent variables are those which are already exist. Here, these variable can be continuous
or can be categorical. In research, an independent variable can be controlled or varied during an
experimental study. These types of variables are known as independent variables as these are not
affected by any other variables of the study (Halperin and Heath, 2020). In present context,
participation of students is independent variable. Here, participation will completely depend on
willingness of the students. However, it will put major impact on academic performance of the
students.
What is the dependent variable?
These are the variables which are going to tested and experimented during a study. Basically,
dependent variables are those which are going to measure in the study. These are also called as
outcome variables (Miller, 2017). In the present context, dependent variable is academic
performance. Here, the academic performance of students depends on their participation in study
group.
What are the ethical considerations in this experiment and how might these be addressed?
To complete a study successfully, it is highly important to follow the necessary ethical
considerations. In the present experiment, the students are going to include in the study groups
on first come and first serve basis. Due to this, there are ample of students who could not have
been part of any study group. Hence, such students were unable to get access of necessary study
material. In order to address the respective ethical consideration, there is requirement to follow
probability method so that every student get equal opportunity to become part of student group
and further receive access of necessary study material.
Why is it important for psychology researchers to submit their research proposals for ethical
review before commencing their research projects?
For psychological researchers, it is imperative to get ethical review before starting their project.
This ethical review is important to protect the participants of research and reputation of
psychology and psychologist. In addition, the ethical review is important in order to get ethical

clearance to ensure that the research work is carried out in a responsible or ethical way (Bougie
and Sekaran, 2019). Further, it helps in ensuring to minimize the harm to human beings and
animals during the research work. In context, the psychological researcher will be able to protect
the participants by getting ethical review on research proposal. Apart from this, ethical review
also makes the investigator enable to complete the entire research work in an ethical manner. By
taking approval on research proposal, it is possible to make necessary changes for further
research work.
Question 2
Choose two psychological concepts that you think could be related (or correlated) to each other
In psychological concepts signifies different aspects of human behavior such as emotions,
thoughts, behavior and more. These theories are created by the psychological researchers in
order to make necessary predictions for future behavior of human being. In this context, the
psychological concept of income and financial security is taken into consideration in the present
scenario. Here, individuals wish to get more and more income so that they can stay financial
secure. These two variables are significantly correlated with each-other. It is analyzed that
financial security of human beings is affected by the income they are earning.
Provide a conceptual definition for each concept and write a brief rationale that describes why
you think the two variables might be related.
Income refers to the flow of money to a group, individual or economy over the period of time.
The term income is highly important as it describes the income earned by the individuals which
they spend to purchase goods (Zhu, Sari and Lee, 2018).
The concept of financial security is about having sufficient amount to cover all the monthly or
yearly expenses in a comfortable way, recover the financial setbacks and save necessary money
forfuture.
State a hypothesis that flows from your rationale and includes both constructs.
H1: Income is helpful in enhancing financial security

Provide an operational definition for the constructs you chose in the previous question.
Income is the benefit which is measured in monetary terms. In other words, it refers to the
money and other transfers of value that is received over a particular period of time. On other
side, financial security is about having enough amount of fund so that one can enjoy a better
lifestyle and work towards attainment of financial goals.
How would you measure these variables?
Income can be easily measured by the amount of money, property and other belongings of a
person. In addition, the non-financial indicators such as lifestyle and more can also be used in
order to measure the level of income of a human being. Financial security of an individual can be
easily measured by his/her net worth, savings, retirement plan and more (Veal, 2017). These all
measures need to analyze in order to assess the financial security of individuals.
Differentiate between the reliability and validity of a measure. Using the operational definitions,
you provided in the second question discuss the following:
Two methods for determining reliability
Test-retest reliability: In this method, the same test is given to a group of individuals over a
period of time. Here, same research method as well as sample group is used. The same result
over the period of time shows that the research method is reliable (Pajo, 2017).
Parallel forms reliability: Here, multiple types of tests are given to the people of same group in
order to assess if results will same while using different research methods. The same response
from different participants shows the reliability of research study.
Two methods for determining validity
Face validity: It considers the suitability of content of a test seems to be on the surface. It is
moreover related with content validity. However, the face validity is more subjective and
informal assessment.
Content validity: Content validity shows whether a test represents all aspects of the construct.
In order to produce valid results, there is requirement to cover all necessary part of subjects

which it aims to measure.
Question 3
Describe what sampling technique the university should use?
Sampling is important to make the appropriate selection of the units which represent the entire
population in fair manner. By choosing an appropriate sampling, it is possible to gain reliable
outcomes out of research (Williamson and Johanson, 2017). In present context, the university
needs to conduct a survey to collect the opinion of student satisfaction. For this purpose, they
need to use simple random sampling so that equal chances will be granted to each and every unit
to become a part of sample. This is a suitable method to make fait & authentic selection of
samples to gain appropriate outcomes in the future period of time.
Justify why you chose this sampling technique?
The main rational of choosing the respective sampling technique is to make generalization about
population. Another reason is simplicity and lack of biasness. Here, it is possible to get adequate
results without putting more efforts. This requires limited time to gain the true samples to
represent the entire population of research. In addition to this, it provides equal chance to each
and every unit to become a part of sample so that the researcher get true and fair results in an
efficient manner.
a) What are the advantages of this technique?
Give examples related to this question
The major significant advantage of simple random sampling is having minimum knowledge of
study group of population. It is helpful in representation of the population. Apart from this,
simple random sampling is useful in terms of getting true and fair results. Sampling method is
simple and easy to use (Freeman, 2017). For instance, the university administration can select
sample through simple random sampling in order to gather the opinion of student satisfaction
with study methods.
b) What are the disadvantages of this technique?
Give examples related to this question

Here, simple random sampling caused large errors in terms of sample size. If units are widely
dispersed, it becomes difficult to select appropriate units to become a part of sample. In case of
heterogeneous units, the respective method cannot be used. When populations is big, it is quite
difficult to use simple random sampling. If sample is not sufficient large, then it may not
represent the population in true manner (Apuke, 2017). For instance, the researcher wish to study
a large group of individuals then it is quite difficult to use simple random sampling as it will
affect the authenticity of the results.
Question 4
What design will be used?
In the present context correlation research design should be used. This research design depicts
the interrelation between two variables. In this, two variables are generally included. This design
explores different reasons in order to explore relationship between variables. In the present
context, the two variables are relaxation and anxiety. Here, the researcher is likely to evaluate the
correlation between these two variables in an efficient manner.
Justify why you have chosen this design?
The main reason to select the respective design is to evaluate the relation between two variables.
Here, correlation research design is important to assess interrelation of two components. Through
correlation research design, it is possible to explore the statistical relation of two different
variables. Apart from this, it is less expensive as well as time consuming. By adopting the
respective research design, it is possible to get authentic and reliable outcomes for future
betterment of project.
Who is involved?
To conduct the research, there is requirement of several participants. Here, participants provide
necessary information to complete the project work successfully. In the present context, lucky is
going to undertake a survey to examine the relation of relaxation and anxiety. It is not possible to
get valid results on the basis of own opinion. Hence, he gathered information from ample of
respondents. Apart from the participants, it will also include mentor, staff and other people.
a) What will they do? (instruments, procedure)

Here, they will use a pre-define procedure to complete the research project. For this purpose,
they are going to use survey method where they will collect information from ample of
respondents. Through survey, it is possible to get true opinion of participants. To record the
response of individuals, the researcher will use a complete and systematic procedure in an
efficient manner.
b)What are the validity concerns?
Validity concern can affect the outcomes of research profoundly. To complete the project
successfully, there is requirement to follow the necessary validity principles. In the present
context, there are validity concerns such as biasness, testing and more. It is found that lucky has
been selected the samples (Dougherty, 2017). During the selection of sample, there might be
biasness which will affect the result of future research project profoundly. Apart from this, there
are also validity concerns in terms of testing the results of research project.
How will you address these validity concerns?
To address the validity concerns, there is requirement to ensure that sample has been made with
true and fair practices. In addition, the researcher needs to make sure that all the units have been
granted equal opportunity to become a part of sample. In addition, it is important to use
appropriate methods to test the research outcomes profoundly.

References
Books and journals
Apuke, O.D., 2017. Quantitative research methods: A synopsis approach. Kuwait Chapter of
Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 33(5471), pp.1-8.
Bougie, R. and Sekaran, U., 2019. Research methods for business: A skill building approach.
John Wiley & Sons.
Dougherty, D., 2017. Grounded theory research methods. The Blackwell companion to
organizations, pp.849-866.
Freeman, L.C., 2017. Research methods in social network analysis. Routledge.
Halperin, S. and Heath, O., 2020. Political research: methods and practical skills. Oxford
University Press, USA.
Miller, S.A., 2017. Developmental research methods. Sage publications.
Pajo, B., 2017. Introduction to research methods: A hands-on approach. Sage publications.
Veal, A.J., 2017. Research methods for leisure and tourism. Pearson UK.
Williamson, K. and Johanson, G. eds., 2017. Research methods: Information, systems, and
contexts. Chandos Publishing.
Zhu, M., Sari, A. and Lee, M.M., 2018. A systematic review of research methods and topics of
the empirical MOOC literature (2014–2016). The Internet and Higher Education, 37,
pp.31-39.