Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology

This assignment delves into the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease, examining global trends, contributing risk factors, and effective management approaches. It draws upon various research studies and clinical guidelines to provide a comprehensive understanding of this prevalent health concern.

Research Paper

Table of Contents
6 Articles..........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
Argument.........................................................................................................................................2
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................8
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

6 Articles
1. Townsend, N., Wilson, L., Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Rayner, M. and Nichols,
M., 2016. Cardiovascular disease in Europe: epidemiological update 2016. European
heart journal, 37(42), pp.3232-3245.
2. Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Williams, J., Rayner, M. and Townsend, N., 2015.
The epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in the UK 2014. Heart, 101(15), pp.1182-
1189.
3. Townsend, N., Nichols, M., Scarborough, P. and Rayner, M., 2015. Cardiovascular
disease in Europe—epidemiological update 2015. European heart journal, 36(40),
pp.2696-2705.
4. Clarson, L.E., Hider, S.L., Belcher, J., Heneghan, C., Roddy, E. and Mallen, C.D., 2015.
Increased risk of vascular disease associated with gout: a retrospective, matched cohort
study in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Annals of the rheumatic
diseases, 74(4), pp.642-647.
5. Singh, S., Kullo, I.J., Pardi, D.S. and Loftus Jr, E.V., 2015. Epidemiology, risk factors
and management of cardiovascular diseases in IBD. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology
and Hepatology, 12(1), p.26.
6. Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Williams, J., Rayner, M. and Townsend, N., 2015.
The epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in the UK 2014. Heart, 101(15), pp.1182-
1189.
INTRODUCTION
Coronary heart disease refers to narrowing of the coronary arteries, the blood vessels that
supply oxygen and blood to the heart. It is also known as coronary artery disease which is a
major cause of illness and death. In this context, the following essay will aid in providing in-
depth understanding regarding the incidence and management of coronary heart disease.
Coronary heart disease exists within the group of cardiovascular disease. In this essay, a brief
analysis of the above stated six academic articles will be made in order to identify the incidence
and management of coronary heart disease. In this context, the epidemiology and aetiology of
heart failures will be identified and researcher aims to create a robust argument in order to
enhance the effectiveness of the research paper.
Keywords
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Cardiomyopathies, Health care economics, incidence, management of cardiovascular disease
heart failure, epidemiology, cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, mortality, morbidity,
treatment, control and prevention.
Argument
According to Piepoli, Massimo and et.al., (2016) heart is the muscle which is of same
size as an adult human fist. The main function of heart is to pump blood to the lungs where it
collects oxygen. This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped back to the heart and then to organs
throughout the body through arteries. The blood then further returns to the hearts via veins and is
supplied to the lungs again. This whole process is referred as circulations. Coronary arteries refer
to the heart network of blood vessel. These arteries present on the surface of the heart and
perform important function by supplying heart muscle with oxygen. As per Townsend and et.al.,
(2016) cardiovascular disease is responsible for too many deaths in Europe continent. In their
study on “Cardiovascular disease in Europe: epidemiological update 2016”, they identified that
17.3 million people died due to cardiovascular disease worldwide as per the study conducted by
Global Burden of Disease (GBD). Furthermore, they identified that 26 per cent of death in
United Kingdom were due to cardiovascular disease. An estimate of 7 million people suffered
with cardiovascular disease in United Kingdom. This implied that cardiovascular disease
presents a significant burden to the United Kingdom. Kotseva and et.al., (2016) elucidated that
when inner layer of coronary artery got damaged, coronary heart disease starts. The damage
affects fatty plaque deposits to the establish up at site of the injury. These deposits composed of
cholesterol and other types of cellular waste products. There accumulation is also termed as
atherosclerosis. If the pieces begin to rupture, platelets begin to grow in that area which attempt
to repair the blood vessel. The growth of platelet block the artery carrying blood to the heart,
thus reducing blood flow and thus, eventually leading to a heart attack. According to
Rapsomaniki and et.al., (2014) there are various symptoms which are associated with Coronary
Heart Disease (CHD) such as chest pain, indigestion, heart burn, weaknesses, nausea, sweating,
cramping and shortness of breath. An individual suffering from these symptoms at higher level is
likely to have cardiovascular disease and requires immediate attention. Kuo and et.al., (2014)
classified chest pain or angina into three types which are stable angina, unstable angina and
variant angina. Mahmood and et.al., (2014) stated in their studies that CHD lead to shortness of
breath. Too little oxygen supplied through heart and other body organs decreased, then it may
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lead to exertion and patient may start panting. Researchers connotes that coronary heart disease
cannot be cured permanently but with the raise in advance technologies, it can be managed
efficiently. Technologies growth and development in medical sector helps in curing and
managing minor to chronic diseases efficiently. As per the study conducted by Carlson and et.al.,
(2015) patients with gout tend to fall in greater risk of incidence of coronary heart disease and
vascular events. Gout refers to common and complex type of arthritis that can influence anyone.
When any individual suffers from sudden and severer attacks of pain, redness, swelling and
tenderness in the joints, then he or she might be suffering from gout. These are few symptoms
that determine whether person is suffering from gout or not. Gout is also the major symptom that
determines the dignity of cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease. Researchers further
identified numerous risk factors other than gout that increases chances of coronary heart disease
in human being. High blood pressure in an individual can be the biggest risk that can
promulgates the chances of cardiovascular disease. Other than this, high blood cholesterol levels
also embark cardiovascular disease in an individual. Cholesterol builds up platelets which block
the flow of blood to heart and other body organs. This increases the possibilities of CHD in
human being. Obesity, excessive consumption of alcohol, emotional stress and unhealthy eating
habits are some other form of risk that can ignite cardiovascular disease in human body.
According to Carlson and et.al., (2015) Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a constructive risk
factor for venous thromboembolism. Patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease have
higher chances to get stroke and coronary heart disease. Inflammatory bowel disease is combine
term used to explain types of disorders that involve chronic inflammation of the digestive tracts.
This type of disorder can impact negatively on person health as issues such as diarrhoea, fever
and fatigue can be arisen in human being. A person suffering from IBD required immediate
attention and proper treatment in order to lower the risk and effects on the health of individual.
According to Bhatnagar and et.al., (2014) cardiovascular disease mortality is declining in United
Kingdom however, cardiovascular disease burden arrives not only from deaths but also from the
individuals who are living with it. In this research study, researchers (George and et.al., 2015).
reviewed the national statistics of many years in order to obtain data in order to demonstrate
precise trends in mortality and morbidity and prevention methods used by different hospitals and
health care professionals in order to treat cardiovascular disease and coronary heart displease
within United Kingdom.
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In their study, they identified that from 1980 to 2013, 68 per cent of cardiovascular
disease rate has been decreased and similar rate of decrease has been identified for coronary
heart disease and strokes (Townsendand et.al., 2016). They obtain data from national health
service records using the main diagnosis. Researcher mentioned that coronary heart disease
prevalence has remained constant at approximately 3 per cent England and 4 per cent in Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland. Townsend and et.al., (2015) argued that cardiovascular disease
was considered as common cause of millions of deaths in the whole European continents. It
accounts for 45 per cent of all deaths which totals up to 4 million death per year. Similarly, they
contend that coronary heart disease was considered as one of the most common single cause of
death which accounts for 19 per cent of deaths in males and 20 per cent in females
(Bhatnagarand et.al., 2015). Cardiovascular disease occurred at younger age and most of the
female at young age got affected from it. The major issue identified by the researchers was high
blood pressure and high level of cholesterol level that choke the blood flow and increases the
chances of coronary heart disease. Researchers elucidated that morbidity rates has been increased
in most of the European countries.
They identified that most of the youth have unhealthy eating practices, lack of attention
towards body and obesity has been the major cause. In identical paradigm, results for coronary
heart disease shows exact tracks. As in some countries it has been decreased while in other
countries it has been increased especially in UK. Townsendand et.al., (2015) explained that
Transluminal Coronary Angioplasties (TCAs) rates has been increased and its shows decrease in
the cases in only four countries which were Denmark, Belgium, Israel and Luxembourg. Another
form of treatment was Coronary artery bypass grafts (CABGs) has been implemented in various
countries which aid in reducing the rate of coronary heart disease especially in Poland and
Solvenia. Coronary heart disease is responsible for millions of deaths in United Kingdom.
Without prompt treatment and efficient care, any individual suffering from the issue can lead to
death. It was identified by Bhatnagar and et.al., (2014) that National Health Service of United
Kingdom that spent around 6.85 billion pound on installing high tech equipment and
technologies in order to decrease the rate of cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease in
the country.
According to Clarsonand et.al., (2015) in order to prevent the coronary heart disease and
cardiovascular disease an individual has to drink plenty of fluids every day including plenty of
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water. Fluids will aid in lowering the cholesterol level and manage the blood pressure of the
organisation. It also assists an individual to fight with dehydration. It was identified in the study
conducted by Clarson and et.al., (2015) that in order to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease
and cardiovascular disease an individual has to focus on getting sufficient amount of protein
from low fat diary products. Low fat dairy products ultimately acts as a protective agent in order
to protect from gout. These are also the best source of proteins. Furthermore, an individual has to
avoid excessive consumption of alcohol in order to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
Excessive consumption of alcohol is indeed not good for health. It not only damages the body
physically but also leads to social and emotional disgust. Singh and et.al., (2015) said that males
and females who suffered from gouts tends to have higher level of alcohol in their body. Thus, in
order to reduce the effects of gout and other symptoms, an individual has to adhere these
essential steps through which he or she can keep his or her heart health and safe.
As per Bhatnagarand et.al., (2015) with the rise in technological development,
medication practices and intervention has been greatly improved. Statins drugs are one of the
most effective form of treatment which has shown some significant results in order to treat the
coronary heart disease (CHD). The drug lowers the level of cholesterol in the blood by reducing
the production of cholesterol from liver. It blocks the enzymes which are responsible for
producing the cholesterol in the liver. It is highly recommended to the patient who has been
suffering from high cholesterol but is not recommended to those patient who have cholesterol
disorder in their body. Low dose aspirin has been recommended by the clinical professionals in
order to minimise the blood clotting, thus lowering the risk of chest pain and angina or heart
attack. Singh and et.al., (2015) argued that these medications can only minimise or block the risk
of coronary heart disease but not able to cure it permanently.
Furthermore, in their research study they identified that these medications have one or
many side effects that affects the health of the patients. High dosage of these medications results
in mild headaches and abdominal pain in the body. According to Bhatnagar and et.al., (2015)
cardiovascular disease and coronal heart disease are now not longer the humongous cause of
deaths in United Kingdom due to increase in technologies and treatment facilities. Treatments
such as laser surgery, Coronary bypass surgery and Angioplasty and stent placement are few
treatments provided by National Health Service of England. In laser surgery tiny holes has been
created in heart muscle in order to form new blood vessels. In Coronary bypass surgery health
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care professionals utilises blood vessels from another part of the body to establish the graft
which can bypass the blocked artery. In angioplasty and stent placement a catheter is inserted
into the narrowed part of the artery.
A deflated balloon is passed through the catheter to the affected area. These types of
treatment help in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease in a
human being. In the cohort study conducted by Clarson and et.al., (2015) the researchers has
provided significant recommendations in order to prevent and control the risk factors the
contributes towards enhancement of cardiovascular disease. Thus, from the analysis of the study
it can be concluded that researchers were able to identify the relevant issues with precise
statistical data using appropriate theme in order to explain the risk factors which leads to
cardiovascular disease. The major theme of the study revolve around the gout and effects on it on
the cardiovascular disease.
In the study conducted by Bhatnager and et.al., (2015) the major theme revolves around
the mortality and morbidity that arise from cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease in
natives of United Kingdom. They identified relevant data through authentic sources and analysed
them efficiently in order to generate precise output. Their systematic review helps in providing
brief understanding about the mortality and morbidity rates influenced due to cardiovascular and
coronary heart disease in United Kingdom. They provide information regarding type of treatment
available in order to cure these diseases adequately and amount of budget the government of
United Kingdom provided to National Health Service of England. In the study conducted by
Singh and et.al., (2015) they identified that patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease
have higher chances to get stroke and coronary heart disease.
The researchers have used systematic review approach in order to analyse the risk factors
and epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in IBD. Inflammatory bowel disease is combine
term used to explain types of disorders that involve chronic inflammation of the digestive tracts.
This type of disorder can impact negatively on person health as issues such as diarrhoea, fever
and fatigue can be arise in human being. A person suffering from IBD required immediate
attention and proper treatment in order to lowers the risk and affects on the health of individual.
They further identify the impact of medication taken by the patients during coronal heart disease.
They conducted in depth systematic review of the relevant literature and identify the potential
issues faced by people from the symptoms of IBD. There approach revolves around the
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epidemiology and risk factors and prevention of cardiovascular diseases in IBD. They
recommended numerous measures which can be implemented by the patients in order to reduce
the level of IBD and avoid CHD. These methods proves to be successful.
After analysing all the six articles thoroughly it can be understood that all cardiovascular
disease and coronal heart disease are common cause of death of million people world wide. In
United Kingdom with increase in governmental intervention and modifications in health care
practices, the mortality rate has been decrease drastically. With enhancement in internet
technologies and efficient health care practices followed by health care professionals less cases
of coronal heart disease and cardiovascular disease has been identified. It is recommended to the
patients in order to prevent the coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease an individual
has to drink plenty of fluids every day including plenty of water. Fluids will aid in lowering the
cholesterol level and manage the blood pressure of the organisation (Rapsomaniki and et.al.,
2014). It also assists an individual to fight with dehydration. It is further recommended to an
individual that he or she has to concentrate on getting sufficient amount of protein from low fat
diary products (Kotseva and et.al., 2016). Low fat dairy products ultimately acts as a protective
agent in order to protect from gout. These are also the best source of proteins. Furthermore, an
individual has to avoid excessive consumption of alcohol in order to reduce the risk of coronary
heart disease. It is suggested to the patient who suffered from the coronary heart disease to
adhere right medication prescribed by the clinician and health care professionals. In this manner,
he or she will be able to cope up with the issue and problems effectively and efficiently (Piepoli,
Massimo and et.al., 2016). Researchers clearly demonstrate precise understanding about the
issues with relevant statistics and data on the basis of which this research paper was able to
establish efficiently.
CONCLUSION
From the research study, it can be concluded that coronary heart disease and
cardiovascular disease are the main cause through which millions of people die. It was identified
17.3 million people died due to cardiovascular disease worldwide as per the study conducted by
Global Burden of Disease (GBD). An estimate of 7 million people suffered with Cardiovascular
disease in United Kingdom. This implied that cardiovascular disease presents a significant
burden to the United Kingdom. The important theme was mortality rate and morbidity rate which
influenced by cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease. It was further identified that
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treatments such as laser surgery, Coronary bypass surgery and Angioplasty and stent placement
are few treatments provided by National Health Service of England. Government interventions
and policies revolutionising the health policies of UK. Recommendations has been made and
identified in order to prevent and manage these diseases. In this context more research can be
conducted by analysing more articles.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Barquera, S., Pedroza-Tobías, A., Medina, C., Hernández-Barrera, L., Bibbins-Domingo, K.,
Lozano, R. and Moran, A.E., 2015. Global overview of the epidemiology of atherosclerotic
cardiovascular disease. Archives of medical research, 46(5), pp.328-338.
Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Williams, J., Rayner, M. and Townsend, N., 2015. The
epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in the UK 2014. Heart, 101(15), pp.1182-1189.
Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Williams, J., Rayner, M. and Townsend, N., 2015. The
epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in the UK 2014. Heart, 101(15), pp.1182-1189.
Clarson, L.E., Hider, S.L., Belcher, J., Heneghan, C., Roddy, E. and Mallen, C.D., 2015.
Increased risk of vascular disease associated with gout: a retrospective, matched cohort
study in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Annals of the rheumatic
diseases, 74(4), pp.642-647.
George, J., Rapsomaniki, E., Pujades-Rodriguez, M., Shah, A.D., Denaxas, S., Herrett, E.,
Smeeth, L., Timmis, A. and Hemingway, H., 2015. How does cardiovascular disease first
present in women and men? Incidence of 12 cardiovascular diseases in a contemporary
cohort of 1,937,360 people. Circulation, pp.CIRCULATIONAHA-114.
Kotseva, K., Wood, D., De Bacquer, D., De Backer, G., Rydén, L., Jennings, C., Gyberg, V.,
Amouyel, P., Bruthans, J., Castro Conde, A. and Cífková, R., 2016. EUROASPIRE IV: A
European Society of Cardiology survey on the lifestyle, risk factor and therapeutic
management of coronary patients from 24 European countries. European journal of
preventive cardiology, 23(6), pp.636-648.
Kuo, C.F., Grainge, M.J., Mallen, C., Zhang, W. and Doherty, M., 2014. Rising burden of gout
in the UK but continuing suboptimal management: a nationwide population study. Annals
of the rheumatic diseases, pp.annrheumdis-2013.
Mahmood, S.S., Levy, D., Vasan, R.S. and Wang, T.J., 2014. The Framingham Heart Study and
the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease: a historical perspective. The
Lancet, 383(9921), pp.999-1008.
Peters, S.A., Huxley, R.R. and Woodward, M., 2014. Diabetes as risk factor for incident
coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-
analysis of 64 cohorts including 858,507 individuals and 28,203 coronary events.
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Piepoli, Massimo F., Arno W. Hoes, Stefan Agewall, Christian Albus, Carlos Brotons, Alberico
L. Catapano, Marie-Therese Cooney et al. "2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular
disease prevention in clinical practice: The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society
of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical
Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts) Developed
with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention &
Rehabilitation (EACPR)." Atherosclerosis 252 (2016): 207-274.
Rapsomaniki, E., Timmis, A., George, J., Pujades-Rodriguez, M., Shah, A.D., Denaxas, S.,
White, I.R., Caulfield, M.J., Deanfield, J.E., Smeeth, L. and Williams, B., 2014. Blood
pressure and incidence of twelve cardiovascular diseases: lifetime risks, healthy life-years
lost, and age-specific associations in 1· 25 million people. The Lancet, 383(9932),
pp.1899-1911.
Singh, S., Kullo, I.J., Pardi, D.S. and Loftus Jr, E.V., 2015. Epidemiology, risk factors and
management of cardiovascular diseases in IBD. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and
Hepatology, 12(1), p.26.
Townsend, N., Nichols, M., Scarborough, P. and Rayner, M., 2015. Cardiovascular disease in
Europe—epidemiological update 2015. European heart journal, 36(40), pp.2696-2705.
Townsend, N., Wilson, L., Bhatnagar, P., Wickramasinghe, K., Rayner, M. and Nichols, M.,
2016. Cardiovascular disease in Europe: epidemiological update 2016. European heart
journal, 37(42), pp.3232-3245.
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