Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Studies

This assignment provides an extensive review of terrorism and counter-terrorism studies, covering various topics such as psychology, sociology, politics, and international relations. It includes a list of recommended readings from reputable sources, including books and academic papers on the subject. The goal is to provide students with a thorough understanding of the complexities surrounding terrorism and its impact on global security.

Running head: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
International Cooperation and Counter Terrorism
Name of the student
Name of the University
Author Note

1INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
Introduction
The turn of the twenty first century brought about a lot of significant changes in the
functioning of the world. One of such changes was that of the introduction of the ideas
of globalization and the related opening up of the borders of the different countries of
the world. Such opening up of the borders led to the intermingling of the cultures and
traditions of the world. The birth of the human civilization is characterised by several
important attributes, one of which is the growth and development of certain cultures
which are specific to one community. In other words, it can be observed that each
human community can be delineated from the others by understanding their traditions
and customs which are peculiar only to them. This is significant to understand because
whereas the human civilization has the characteristic feature of being the the most
smartest species on the face of the Earth, they are essential divided and separated from
each other based on their belief system and the values they hold. One of the most
important attribute of a human being is that they are essential extremely self serving
beings. This means that they are protective about their interest and are desirous of the
fulfillment of their own selfish motives. This in turn, has given birth to many hostilities
and conflicts which have only gained significant foot hold with the dawn of the twenty
first century (Jackson 2018). This is intriguing to understand because one of the most
significant features of the contemporary world is that is is inclined to the observation of
peace and security in the world. However, due to the personal designs of the human
beings in different parts of the world, at times it is observed that the inclinations of such
individuals are often at conflict with the greater interest of the nation states. This has
given birth to the most concerning problems of the modern world which is the issue of
terrorism. Terrorism can therefore be implied that it flows from the desire to attain some

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
of the selfish motives of the individuals of the society (Wilkinson 2016.). However,
terrorism is essentially seen to have certain significant political designs which are the
end motives of such individuals who are termed as terrorists. In order to counteract such
forms of terrorism in all of its forms and manner, the different nation states of the world
has taken up the important and difficult task of formulating and initiating certain
measures which would be able to tackle such heinous activities of some of the
individuals of the society. However, an important problem that can be noticed to this end
is that often times the international community as a whole is unable to undertake
measures which would effectively be able to counter act such acts of terrorism. This
essentially flows from the attitude of the different nation states of the world with regard
to their own national interest and its fulfillment (Wilkinson 2015). This essay tries to
understand the different problems which are faced at the international sphere to
undertake such measures of counter terrorism. In this regard, the main purpose of the
essay is to analyze the various difficulties which are inherent at the international
cooperation in counter terrorism.
Meaning of terrorism
Terrorism refers to the establishment of a situation by a particular individual or a
group of individuals whose main objective is to imbibe fear in the kinds of the people
(Laqueur 2017). Terrorism arises when there is a particular objective of such individuals
to achieve. Such objectives are usually related to the achievement of something political
in nature. Terrorists make use of violence and fear in order to fulfill their primary
motives. There is no particular ideology of the different terrorist groups that are seen to
be in existence in the modern contemporary world. Terrorist outfits can follow either
right wing or left wing ideology, be either religious or nationalistic in their orientation

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
(Jongman 2017). Thus, it can be believed that terrorism does not have any particular
affiliation to any particular nation or ideology, they are simply desirous of achieving
their own selfish motives and to this end, they are determined to use weapons of fear and
violence.
To this effect, it can be stated that terrorism is a highly undesirable social activity.
Activities related to terrorism often causes severe and unimaginable damage to live and
property (Nacos 2016). Furthermore, it not only causes physical damages but also causes
certain emotional damages as well. The fear which is generated in the minds of the
people often makes them vulnerable to undertake certain activities which they otherwise
would not have adhered to. This leads to the degeneration of the social fabric of the
human community which in turn, leads to the loss of the inherent culture and traditions
of the community as whole (Martin 2017). Terrorism therefore has a significant adverse
impact on the entire human civilization.
Historical background of the rise of terrorism
Terrorism is seen to have its roots in the historical times of the emergence of the
human civilization. Its roots can be traced back to the first century AD where assassins
such as the Hashhashin and the Sicarii made use of violence and conflict in order to
achieve their objectives (Laqueur 2017). The Sicarii wee a zealot group of the Jews who
used violence to murder and assassin the enemies of their own state, Judea. As a result,
the killed the Roman rulers in the name of protection of their motherland. The
Hashhahins on the other hand, were active during the 11th century to the 13th century
(Townshend 2018). They belonged to the region of Syria and Iran and were a secretive
Islamic group of murderers.
It was in the year of 1793 that the word ‘terrorism’ took a form as we know today.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
The Reign of Terror in the region of France brought to line light the character of
Maxmilien Robespierre who believed that the French Revolution only caused damage to
the state (Martin 2017). Thus, in order to bring about peace and stability in the country,
Robespierre undertook the means of violence to kill all the different enemies of the state.
He is considered to be a terrorist in the modern sense of the term as he did not
rationalize his actions based on popular human opinions. Rather, he took in to
consideration his own views and opinions and believed that his activities were justified.
In this regard, it can be seen that his thought process has a lot of similarity to he
terrorists as is evidenced today who are only concerned about the fulfillment of their
own selfish motives(Chaliand and Blin 2016). They do not attempt to understand the
needs and aspirations of the other human beings of the society and instead belief that
once their aspirations are achieved and fulfilled, people would be able to lead a better
standard of life, which is not so in reality.
Rise of International Terrorism
The later half of the twentieth century saw a change in the nature and orientation of
terrorism. For so long, terrorist activities were carried out by a single individual or a
group of individuals who wanted to fulfill their own primary interest. Often such interest
were short term in nature and with the fulfillment of such objectives, the terrorist
activity usually died down. However, after the end of the Second World War, many
significant changes were brought about, one of which was the change in the nature of
terrorism. One of the important changes observed was that of the use of guerrilla tactics
and strategies by the different non-state actors to bring about a change in the society
(Combs 2017). In this context, it is important to note that the aspect of terrorism no
longer remained bounded to the individualistic notions; it now acquired a major in state

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
characteristic whereby now the different elements of the state started to become
involved in various terrorist activities.
The different non-state actors which can be mentioned in this context are the Irish
Republic Army and the Kurds (Jenkins 2015). The Irish Republic Army was formed by
the Irish Catholics who wanted to form an independent country of their own rather than
belonging to the region of Great Britain. Here, it is important to note that the terrorist
outfit of the Irish Republic Army has a greater political interests to achieve. They
believe that they only manner in which their aims and objectives can be achieved is
through the recourse of war and violence. There might be other civil bodies and interest
group in the region with the same intention and purpose but the distinguish point
between such groups and the Irish Republic Army is that they are inclined to murder and
kill people for the achievement of their own objectives. As a result, it can be stated that
terrorist groups do not work for the welfare of the human society. They are primarily
concerned with the fulfillment of their own interests (Zulaika and Douglass 2016).
On the other hand, the Kurds refer to the ethnic group who have their bases in Iran,
Turkey, Iraq and Syria. The Kurds have been seeking a state of their own with their own
national autonomy. However, it has proved to be highly challenging for this ethnic
minority group to find a place of their own within the context of the Middle East region.
In this regard, it can be observed that the Kurdistan Worker’s Party or the PKK has
resorted to the use of different terrorist activities and strategies since the dawn of the
1970s (Sageman 2017). Their main objective in this regard is to achieve the introduction
of their own Kurdish state with their sovereignty intact. However, they do not realize
and fail to take in to cognizance that their very own terrorist activities are posing a
severe harm to the members of their own national identity.
Thus, it can be observed that modern form of terrorism has taken a different identity

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
of its own (Law 2016). The acts of terrorism are no longer confined to the aspirations of
the individuals. Nowadays, different non-state actors have become involved in the
achievement of the own selfish interest.
To this effect it can be seen that in the 1970s the aspect of terrorism became
international in character. During this time, the hijacking of different forms of
transportation belonging to the various nationalities emerged. One of the most infamous
incidents was the hijacker of the El Al Flight by the Liberation of Palestine in the year of
1968 (Sageman 2017). Moreover, around twenty years later down the history, the Pan
Am Flight was hijacked and bombed, leaving the entire world reeling from its after
shocks. The contemporary form of terrorism acquired the character of instilling fear in
the minds of the people through the usage of violence and hostility in order to achieve a
greater political gain of their own.
One of the defining moments of international terrorism was that of the Munich
Olympics in the year of 1972 (Sageman 2017). During this time, a group of the
Palestinian terrorists kidnapped several Israeli athletes and killed them in cold blood.
This day is now observed as the Black September. This terrorist activity flowed from the
ongoing conflict as experienced by the ethnic groups of the Jews and the Arabs in the
region of the Middle East. Since the Arabs were unable to effectively remove the Jews
from their own lands, they targeted them at an international field so as to send the
message that they were not afraid to escalate the situation in front of the entire world
community.
Such acts of terrorism was not only confined to the developing regions of the world.
Within the region of the Soviet Union, it was observed that the black market
manufacturing and the consequent sale of the rifles of AK 47 increased significantly
after the collapse of the Soviet Union in the year of 1989. Terrorist activities was also

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
observed in the context of the United States of America which is considered to be the
hegemon of the world. The power and influence of the United States is over bearing on
the other nation states of the world but it has suffered severe damages from several
terrorist activities after the wake of the Second World War and the rise of International
Terrorism.
Ideological character of International Terrorism
The aspect of terrorism is motivated by several ideologies which are deeply adhered
to by such actors who belied in the cause of terrorism. The ideologies of terrorism are
found to be deep rooted in the opinions and view points held by the people belonging to
a specific region of the world. In this regard, the understanding of the cultural and
traditional outlook of the people comes in to consideration (Chomsky 2015). Modern
day terrorism has taken a different form whereby the terrorist tries to influence the
religious outlook of the people.
One of the ideologies of the different terrorist outfits of the world is that of religious
aspirations (Doosje et al. 2016). In this context, it can be observed that there are some
terrorists existing, especially in the Middle East region of the world who believes in
attaining their own cause through the device and mechanism of religion and its
doctrines. For instance, one of the most severe terrorist challenge of the twenty first
century is faced in the world from the Hezbollah (Townshend 2018). The literal
translation of the word ‘Hezbollah’ means ‘Party of the Allah’ which shows the deep
religious ascription of the party. Hezbollah has laid its foundations in the region of
Lebanon and is considered to be a militant group with Shia Islamist tendencies. The
party was founded in the year of 1980 by several social bodies of Iran in an attempt to
unify the Shia groups of people living in Lebanon. The main objective of Hezbollah is to

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
fight for the cause of Iran in the Iran-Israeli conflict. The position occupied by
Hezbollah is so significant that this militant group also has a political presence within
the government of Lebanon, known as the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc. The doctrine
of Hezbollah, as enunciated by its founder states that the main objective of the Party is
to ensure that there remains no American citizens or militants in the region of Lebanon
and to ensure the end of the colonial tendencies of the nation states of the western
hemisphere.
In this regard, it can be seen that the Hezbollah wants to abolish any introduction of
the Western doctrines in the region of Middle East especially in the region of Lebanon
(Nesser 2018). To this effect, Hezbollah makes use of the religious scripture of the holy
Quran to justify its acts of war and terrorism on the people of the land. They believe that
they have been given the holy and divine duty of expelling any infidels from their land
so that they can ensure the purity of their land. The members of Hezbollah firmly
believes that anyone who does not adhere to the religious scriptures and words of the
Holy Book of Quran deserves to be killed. Thus, they justify their acts of violence and
chaos by misinterpreting the teachings of the Islam world.
Meaning of Counter Terrorism
The aspect of counter terrorism refers to the manner in which various measures are
undertaken in order to actively prevent the occurrence of terrorist activities in the
society. In this regard, it can be observed that the counter terrorist measures are
essentially taken by the different nation state actors of the world in their individual
capacity (Nacos 2016). However, in the context of the recently globalized world of
today, it is seen that the state actors are no longer individual entities of the world. In fact,
they are considered to be units of the whole system as has been propounded by Kenneth

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
Waltz (Kaplan 2017). He views the individual state actors to be the constituent units of
the whole international sphere and each of them have a specific nation objective to
achieve. The achievement of such objective depends on the maintenance of peace and
security of the world. Such peace and security is guaranteed only when the state actors
are able to take effective actions to this regard. The occurrence of any terrorist activities
is therefore not seen to be favorably for the international community as a whole as such
terrorist activities bring about chaos and anarchy in the world.
As a consequence, it is vital that certain counter terrorist measures needs to be
taken. The concept of counter terrorism gained significant importance in the world
community even in the nineteenth century when the Irish Fenians carried out certain
terror attacks in the Great Britain during the 1880s (Coaffee 2016). During that time, the
first ever counter terrorist unit was established by the then Home Secretary of Britain,
Sir William Harcourt. Harcourt believed that such a counter terrorist unit should have a
permanent place in the society of Britain as it would enable the country to counteract the
various politically motivated wars and violence that occurs in the world. To this effect,
the counter terrorist forces needs to be given access to certain modern forms of warfare
techniques which they would be able to use to protect themselves and the society from
the harmful effects of the terrorist units (Alexander 2019). The concept of counter
terrorism gained more international acceptance after the horrific attacks of 9/11 in the
region of the United States of America. It was for the first time that the world witnessed
first hand as to the disastrous effects of terrorism, especially one backed by religious
ideology. It was at this time that the different nation states of the world came together to
ensure the formation of a counter terrorist unit so that they would be able to protect their
citizens from the activities of the terrorist outfits (Kellner 2015).

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
Importance of International cooperation in counter terrorism
With the advent of the globalized world in the twenty first century, it can be
observed that the individualistic notions of the different nation states of the world has
also reduced to a significant extent (Martin 2018). States no longer can now live in
isolation. In fact, they are so deeply integrated with one other on a variety of levels that
the functioning of one state has a significant impact of the functioning of some other
state in the world. Such areas of integration are mainly the economic sphere and the
cultural sphere.
Activities of terrorism emerges in these two spheres of human activity. In the
international sphere, it can be noticed that the modern form of terrorism has assumed a
garb of religious terrorism (Chomsky 2015). In other words, such a form of terrorism
seeks to appeal to the religious aspect of the human beings in order to make the innocent
civilians of the society believe in their cause. There is no one religion in the world which
is bounded to one specific place on the Earth. In other words, every region of the Earth
plays a host to a variety of human religion. In this regard, when a particular religious
terrorist groups makes certain claims for themselves in order to achieve a politically
motivated objective, there are high chances that it would seek to influence all the
members of that religious group who are living in different parts of the world.
This poses a severe challenge on the part of the state actors as such appeals of the
terrorist groups have the likelihood of creating chaos and confusion within their state
boundaries (Horgan 2017). As a result, there is a need on the part of the states to ensure
that proper measures are taken so that the terrorist outfits are unable to make their appeal
in front of the common public and turn them to their cause (Crenshaw 2019). As a
consequence, there is a dire need on the part of the different nation states of the world to
come together and find a common measure which they would be able to under take in

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
order to solve the issue of terrorism.
Difficulties inherent to international cooperation in counter-terrorism
The main objective of the international community in the contemporary world of
today is to find out an effective means to resolve the problem of terrorism. However, it
can be observed that the different nation states of the world are unable to to find
effective measures to bring an end to terrorism because of certain difficulties. Such
difficulties may arise due to a number of factors. Among them, some of the factors are
inherent to the character of the international community as a whole (Bruckberger 2018).
One of the difficulties which is inherent to international cooperation in counter
terrorism is the very nature of the states (Spalek 2016). The nature of the different nation
states of the world was explained for the very first time in a coherent and cohesive
manner by Kenneth Waltz. In the year of 1979, Kenneth Waltz advocated the theory of
international politics. He is classified to be a neorealist and therefore, is found to draw
inspiration from the economic structuring of the international market. According to his
theory of international politics, Waltz opined that the world is essentially structured in
an anarchic manner. Waltz believed that the entire world is composed of certain
constituting units which refer to the various nation states of the globe. All of them
coexist within the ordered system and interact with one another. Such interaction has
been necessitated with the introduction of the concepts of globalization and
liberalization. However, this does not mean that the interacting constituent units of the
countries are living in an harmonious relation with each other (Crenshaw and LaFree
2017). According to his theory of international politics, the nation states have their own
national objectives to attain. Such national objectives take a precedence over the
resolution of the more immediate and threatening global issues such as that of terrorism.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
In the face of such self serving notion of the states, it can be observed that certain nation
states of the world, in fact the majority of them, do not agree with one another as to how
to resolve the international crisis of terrorism (Onwudiwe 2018).
Thus, from the analysis of the theory as advocated by Kenneth Waltz, it can be
observed that the basic characteristic of the various nation states of the world prevent
them from agreeing unanimously on finding a resolution to end terrorism. The states are
essentially self serving in nature and their primary objective is the fulfillment of their
own national interest (Giroux 2016). As a result, there is not so much the problem
regarding the system but rather a problem with the way the entire system is structured.
Another difficulty which is inherent in the context of international cooperation with
regard to the issue of counter terrorism is that of the presence of different sets of
domestic laws prevailing in the various countries of the world (Chalk 2017). The
domestic laws of the countries are strictly adhered to as they are a sign of the
maintenance of sovereignty of such nation states. However, often times it is observed
that such domestic laws prevent a country from undertaking any effective measures for
obstructing a terrorist activity from taking place. For instance, in the context of Britain
in can be seen that a new policy has been formulated in the year of 2015, known as the
Counter Terrorism and the Security Act. This policy is fundamentally flawed as it only
targets a particular community of people. The policy has been formulated for alienating
the young Islamic population of the country. Such Muslim population of Britain are
treated with suspicions and doubts, therefore leading to the problem of creating fear and
hatred in the society.
Such a domestic law of one country has a cascading impact on the rest of the
international sphere as it has the potential of alienating the support of some of the major
players of the world (Burke 2017). For instance, the institution of such a domestic law of

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
Great Britain has aggravated the Islamic countries of the world, especially that of the
region of Middle East. The people of such Arab countries believe that the entire world
community is suspicious of them simply because of their cultural and ethnic back
ground. The absence of any aspect of benefit of doubt has further radicalized some of
the elements of such Arab countries, which in turn, have the potential to become the
future terrorist outfits of the world. Therefore, it can be stated that it is the way that the
domestic laws are formulated that decides on the level of international cooperation
among the different countries of the globe.
Such difficulties in international cooperation have the significant power to prevent
the international community as a whole to undertake any effective means and measures
to counteract the different terrorist activities. This in turn, has further fueled the issue of
terrorism which has only grown in scope in the recent times. Thus, there is a dire and
imminent need on the part of the various countries of the world to lay aside their
differences and to act as a whole unit to find resolutions to prevent the outbreak of any
more acts of terrorism.
Measures undertaken to remove such difficulties in international
cooperation with regard to counter terrorism
One of the most important measures which has been taken at an international level
in order to address the grave issue of terrorism and the need for counter terrorism was in
the year of 2005 (Nesi 2016). Saudi Arabia and its ministers organized the first ever
International Counter Terrorism Conference in the capital of Riyadh. In this place, King
Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud appealed to the international society to come together
and establish the much needed international platform in order to counter the different
terrorist activities. This showed the need felt on the part of the countries of the world to

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
ensure measures to fight against terrorism.
In order to ensure that the issue of terrorism assumes a significant and important
priority among the different nation states of the world, several non governmental
organizations of the world have taken up the initiative to endorse certain counter
terrorist measures. In this context mention may be made of the United Nations
Organisation. The United Nations Organization is the most important international body
which came in to existence after the end of the Second World War. Established in the
year of 1945, the main objective of this non governmental body is to ensure the
prevalence of peace and harmony in the world. In order to achieve this aim, nearly all
the countries of the world are the member states of this body.
To address the issue of counter terrorism, the United Nations have instituted the
Global Counter Terrorism Strategy in the year of 2006, on 8th September (Osman 2018).
This strategy has the objective of ensuring that effective counter terrorism measures are
taken at the regional level, the state level as well as in the international global scale
level. This strategy is based on four important pillars, that is of addressing and
recognizing the different conditions that leads to the spread of terrorism and the
measures which can be undertaken in order to prevent such forms of terrorism (Muldoon
Jr 2018). Furthermore, the strategy also lays down the measures which can be taken to
build up the capacity of the states to counter such acts of terrorism. The strategy
emphasizes on the importance of maintenance of the universal human rights and respect
for adherence to the rule of law while combating any activities of terrorism.
The Security Council of the United Nations is also committed to fighting the war on
terrorism. After the attack on the Twin Trade Towers of the United States of America by
the terrorist outfit of Al Qeada, the leaders of this hegemonic country undertook the oath
of combating terrorism in all of its forms. In this regard, the then President of the United

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
States of America, George Bush, announced its policy of War on Terror which essential
meant a zero tolerance policy for any such activity of terrorism (Jackson 2018). The
United States of America is one of the most influential voices within the Security
Council of the United Nations. As a consequence, any policy or call for global aid which
is given on the behalf of the United States, the other nation states of the world finds it
their prerogative to abide by it. It was in this context that the United States of America
was able to launch a counter attack on Baghdad after the horrific attack on the Twin
Trade Towers on 9/11 (Lansford 2018).
Conclusion
To conclude, it can be observed that although the different nation states of the world
have come out of their phases of isolation in the twenty first century, they are still
guided by their desire of achieving their own national interest. They believe that the
fulfillment of their national objectives would increase their power and sphere in the
international sphere. However, such an inherent characteristic flaw of the states poses a
serious challenge when it comes to the issue of counteracting the various terrorist
activities of the world. Terrorism has become the most concerning problems of the
twenty first century. The different radicalized sections of the world believe that they
would be able to achieve their own selfish motives through the use of violence and
chaos. Furthermore, such outfits are seeking to bring about a regime change in certain
areas of the world which is politically more harmful for the larger international context.
In this regard, there is a dire need on the part of the various nation states of the world to
ensure that effective measures are undertaken to abolish the terrorist activities. This has
given birth to the idea of counter terrorism and its measures. The international
community needs to forgo its inherent difficulties and differences in order to bring about

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COUNTER TERRORISM
the establishment of peace and harmony in the world as it has promised to do so after the
end of the Second World War.

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