Culture, Identity and Indigenous Australian Peoples
Added on 2023-04-06
25 Pages9411 Words365 Views
3
Chapter 1
culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous
australIan PeoPles
ron hampton and Maree toombs
learning objectives:
this chapter should assist you to:
− understand concepts of race
− articulate concepts of culture, identity and social organisation
− understand the diversity of Indigenous cultures and the role of cultural identity and
practices
− reflect on the role of cultural practices and identity for Indigenous cultures globally
and in australia
− reflect on the diversity of aboriginal and torres strait Islander identity, cultures and
societies.
aboriginal australians
torres strait Islanders
Indigenous australians
race
culture
identity
ethnicity
Indigenous cultures
country
dreamings
discrete Indigenous
communities
Key terms:Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
Chapter 1
culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous
australIan PeoPles
ron hampton and Maree toombs
learning objectives:
this chapter should assist you to:
− understand concepts of race
− articulate concepts of culture, identity and social organisation
− understand the diversity of Indigenous cultures and the role of cultural identity and
practices
− reflect on the role of cultural practices and identity for Indigenous cultures globally
and in australia
− reflect on the diversity of aboriginal and torres strait Islander identity, cultures and
societies.
aboriginal australians
torres strait Islanders
Indigenous australians
race
culture
identity
ethnicity
Indigenous cultures
country
dreamings
discrete Indigenous
communities
Key terms:Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
4 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
Note: Throughout this book, we will be using different terminology to refer
to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. We accept that not everyone
agrees with the use of these terms, nor with the use of the term ‘Indigenous
Australians’. We accept that individuals may prefer to be identified by their
language/cultural name, for example Jagera, Wiradjuri, Bardi, or Wik Munkan,
or by regional group names such as Koories, Murris, Noongahs, Nyoongars,
Nungas etc. Where there can be a distinction, appropriate terms may be used,
but generally we need to utilise generic terminology. This is in keeping with the
adoption by many Aboriginal people of the term ‘Dreamings’ which was coined
by WEH Stanner (1965) to represent the myriad individual names for traditional
belief systems.
‘Aborigine’ is a term seen as unacceptable among Aboriginal people today, but
it has been used in this book where it forms part of a direct quote.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
Note: Throughout this book, we will be using different terminology to refer
to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. We accept that not everyone
agrees with the use of these terms, nor with the use of the term ‘Indigenous
Australians’. We accept that individuals may prefer to be identified by their
language/cultural name, for example Jagera, Wiradjuri, Bardi, or Wik Munkan,
or by regional group names such as Koories, Murris, Noongahs, Nyoongars,
Nungas etc. Where there can be a distinction, appropriate terms may be used,
but generally we need to utilise generic terminology. This is in keeping with the
adoption by many Aboriginal people of the term ‘Dreamings’ which was coined
by WEH Stanner (1965) to represent the myriad individual names for traditional
belief systems.
‘Aborigine’ is a term seen as unacceptable among Aboriginal people today, but
it has been used in this book where it forms part of a direct quote.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 5
race
When working in cross-cultural situations, it is important to accept and relate to
individuals from a wide range of backgrounds, without prejudice or preconceptions
based on emotive issues and erroneous ideas. In anthropological terms, race is
an arbitrary classification formerly based on physical characteristics including
skin colour etc., but now is increasingly based on genetic markers, for example
blood groups. It can also refer to a human population whose members share a
greater degree of physical and genetic similarity with one another than with
other humans.
‘Race’ is often used as an anthropological classification, linked to physical
features and characteristics, and is often linked to geographic areas. Research
suggests very limited genetic differences between groups despite widely dispersed
locations. In sociological terms, ‘race’ is applied by one group to members of
another, with characteristics ascribed on the basis of appearance or descent. A
preferable term is ethnicity, which identifies people on the basis of social and
cultural groups based on common origins and cultural traditions.
culture, identity and indigenous people
culture
Howard describes culture as:
the customary, learned manner in which human groups organize their
behaviour and thought in relation to their environment. ... how people
act, and especially interact, with one another. ... how people perceive,
classify, and interpret their world (1996, p. 11).
Our personal cultural lens influences how we interpret others, and how we behave
in society. Culture is generally accepted to be a learned process while ‘race’ is
associated with perceived inherited characteristics. Relationships between
young and old in each culture exist to teach and reinforce culturally appropriate
behaviours, attitudes and values, following hierarchical stratification of societies.
Examination of culture requires a consistent emphasis on objectivity and an
appreciation that we might not always see things the same way that others do.
Miner (1956), in ‘Body Ritual among the Nacirema’, demonstrated the hidden
aspects of culture, the unseen learned values, beliefs and assumptions on which
overt behaviour is based.
race can define groups
of tribes or peoples who
form a distinctive ethnic
population. It is a term
which is often used but
poorly understood.
ethnicity refers to
belonging to a social and
cultural group based on
common regional origins
and cultural traditions.
Culture is the learned
patterns of thought,
action, understanding
and history through
which we engage
and interact with the
world and other people
around us. culture
provides a framework
in which we develop
our understanding of
customary behaviours,
which may not be
apparent to outsiders.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 5
race
When working in cross-cultural situations, it is important to accept and relate to
individuals from a wide range of backgrounds, without prejudice or preconceptions
based on emotive issues and erroneous ideas. In anthropological terms, race is
an arbitrary classification formerly based on physical characteristics including
skin colour etc., but now is increasingly based on genetic markers, for example
blood groups. It can also refer to a human population whose members share a
greater degree of physical and genetic similarity with one another than with
other humans.
‘Race’ is often used as an anthropological classification, linked to physical
features and characteristics, and is often linked to geographic areas. Research
suggests very limited genetic differences between groups despite widely dispersed
locations. In sociological terms, ‘race’ is applied by one group to members of
another, with characteristics ascribed on the basis of appearance or descent. A
preferable term is ethnicity, which identifies people on the basis of social and
cultural groups based on common origins and cultural traditions.
culture, identity and indigenous people
culture
Howard describes culture as:
the customary, learned manner in which human groups organize their
behaviour and thought in relation to their environment. ... how people
act, and especially interact, with one another. ... how people perceive,
classify, and interpret their world (1996, p. 11).
Our personal cultural lens influences how we interpret others, and how we behave
in society. Culture is generally accepted to be a learned process while ‘race’ is
associated with perceived inherited characteristics. Relationships between
young and old in each culture exist to teach and reinforce culturally appropriate
behaviours, attitudes and values, following hierarchical stratification of societies.
Examination of culture requires a consistent emphasis on objectivity and an
appreciation that we might not always see things the same way that others do.
Miner (1956), in ‘Body Ritual among the Nacirema’, demonstrated the hidden
aspects of culture, the unseen learned values, beliefs and assumptions on which
overt behaviour is based.
race can define groups
of tribes or peoples who
form a distinctive ethnic
population. It is a term
which is often used but
poorly understood.
ethnicity refers to
belonging to a social and
cultural group based on
common regional origins
and cultural traditions.
Culture is the learned
patterns of thought,
action, understanding
and history through
which we engage
and interact with the
world and other people
around us. culture
provides a framework
in which we develop
our understanding of
customary behaviours,
which may not be
apparent to outsiders.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
6 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
Culture consists of:
− visible (overt) behaviours
− unseen (covert) factors
− underlying (unconscious) issues
− values, beliefs, assumptions.
Understanding behaviour of others is a difficult task, especially as our
societies become more complex, although complexity should not necessarily be
equated with ‘superiority’. Societies change over time, increasing the need to
shift social directions to survive. Increasingly, competitive societies marginalise
less competitive ones, just as dominant groups marginalise subordinate groups.
Societal change promotes adaptation for a suppressed group to become less
different from the dominant group, and thus, less threatening to that group.
In colonisation, power relationships are established as the result of domination
of another culture. These are most obvious in imposed policies, demonstrated by
difference (and hence distance) from the dominant one, for example segregation
of housing, education etc.
At first contact with Europeans, Aboriginal peoples were seen as devoid of
culture in any form: their lack of material belongings, and ‘perceived failure’ to
use the wheel and till the land were seen as evidence of a most ‘primitive’ form of
humankind. Europeans were incapable of comprehending the complex spiritual
and cultural life which Aboriginal cultures encompassed. The British ignored
the capacity of the Aboriginal people to survive and coexist in the world’s most
arid, habitable continent. Aboriginal sustainable patterns of land use had been
developed over many generations reflecting longstanding behaviours designed
to ensure ongoing resource availability. Varied social structures were adapted to
the individual ‘country’, and cultural patterns maintained group viability even
in times of environmental change.
Identity
Individual identity relates closely to cultural and social identity, which
incorporates roles in a social setting. Identity arises from the adoption of social
roles through personal experience. The individual negotiates the meaning of
his or her identity with family and society members. Social identity can be seen
as the aggregation of group memberships that define the individual and their
positions. Each individual in the community identifies and establishes accepted
relationships and interactions. Identity provides a sense of belonging to a specific
group at family, community or national level.
a further explanation of
‘country’ is outlined in
chapter 4.
Identity describes
an individual’s self-
perception as a discrete,
separate entity with
specific characteristics.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
Culture consists of:
− visible (overt) behaviours
− unseen (covert) factors
− underlying (unconscious) issues
− values, beliefs, assumptions.
Understanding behaviour of others is a difficult task, especially as our
societies become more complex, although complexity should not necessarily be
equated with ‘superiority’. Societies change over time, increasing the need to
shift social directions to survive. Increasingly, competitive societies marginalise
less competitive ones, just as dominant groups marginalise subordinate groups.
Societal change promotes adaptation for a suppressed group to become less
different from the dominant group, and thus, less threatening to that group.
In colonisation, power relationships are established as the result of domination
of another culture. These are most obvious in imposed policies, demonstrated by
difference (and hence distance) from the dominant one, for example segregation
of housing, education etc.
At first contact with Europeans, Aboriginal peoples were seen as devoid of
culture in any form: their lack of material belongings, and ‘perceived failure’ to
use the wheel and till the land were seen as evidence of a most ‘primitive’ form of
humankind. Europeans were incapable of comprehending the complex spiritual
and cultural life which Aboriginal cultures encompassed. The British ignored
the capacity of the Aboriginal people to survive and coexist in the world’s most
arid, habitable continent. Aboriginal sustainable patterns of land use had been
developed over many generations reflecting longstanding behaviours designed
to ensure ongoing resource availability. Varied social structures were adapted to
the individual ‘country’, and cultural patterns maintained group viability even
in times of environmental change.
Identity
Individual identity relates closely to cultural and social identity, which
incorporates roles in a social setting. Identity arises from the adoption of social
roles through personal experience. The individual negotiates the meaning of
his or her identity with family and society members. Social identity can be seen
as the aggregation of group memberships that define the individual and their
positions. Each individual in the community identifies and establishes accepted
relationships and interactions. Identity provides a sense of belonging to a specific
group at family, community or national level.
a further explanation of
‘country’ is outlined in
chapter 4.
Identity describes
an individual’s self-
perception as a discrete,
separate entity with
specific characteristics.Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 7
Indigenous identity
Indigenousness is an identity constructed, shaped and lived in the
politicized context of contemporary colonialism. The communities,
clans, nations and tribes we call Indigenous peoples are just that:
Indigenous to the lands they inhabit, in contrast to and in contention
with the colonial societies and states that have spread out from Europe
and other centres of empire (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005, p. 597).
Individuals and communities link their Indigenous identity closely with
the country on which it emerged. Tradition (lore and law) and cultural mores
contribute to the identity of the group, and define the individual identity.
Environment, climate, resources and locality impact on lifestyle and cultural
responses to challenges. Successful occupation requires different responses to
environmental conditions such as cold, altitude or aridity, for example extremely
cold-climate cultures develop different social organisations to those in a
rainforest area. Geography contributes to cultural diversity as indigenous groups
retain links to land as the ‘Mother’ or ‘Life-giver’. Colonial cultures perceived
land as an economic asset/possession, a view which has spread globally.
Indigenous cultures
There is no universally agreed name for the peoples whose lives,
conditions and aspirations are [described] ... as first peoples, because
their ancestors were the original inhabitants of their lands, since
colonized by foreigners. ... [Many refer to them as] indigenous, a term
widely accepted by the peoples themselves, and now adopted by the
United Nations (Burger, 1990, p. 16).
Today’s indigenous peoples are the descendants of the traditional owners
and occupiers of a country or region. They demonstrate diversity in culture,
religion and socio-economic organisation, both historically and currently. Many
reflection point
Identity is a simple yet complex set of ideas, and you may wonder why we are addressing it. a recent comment by
a student who had been visiting First nations community health services in canada, and interacting with the local
people, found an answer to that question. on reflection, she stated that she had not understood how important
identity was to indigenous people. however, she now realised that it was central to how they saw themselves, and who
they were. she said ‘I’m still not sure about what it is, but I get it! I see why!’Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 7
Indigenous identity
Indigenousness is an identity constructed, shaped and lived in the
politicized context of contemporary colonialism. The communities,
clans, nations and tribes we call Indigenous peoples are just that:
Indigenous to the lands they inhabit, in contrast to and in contention
with the colonial societies and states that have spread out from Europe
and other centres of empire (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005, p. 597).
Individuals and communities link their Indigenous identity closely with
the country on which it emerged. Tradition (lore and law) and cultural mores
contribute to the identity of the group, and define the individual identity.
Environment, climate, resources and locality impact on lifestyle and cultural
responses to challenges. Successful occupation requires different responses to
environmental conditions such as cold, altitude or aridity, for example extremely
cold-climate cultures develop different social organisations to those in a
rainforest area. Geography contributes to cultural diversity as indigenous groups
retain links to land as the ‘Mother’ or ‘Life-giver’. Colonial cultures perceived
land as an economic asset/possession, a view which has spread globally.
Indigenous cultures
There is no universally agreed name for the peoples whose lives,
conditions and aspirations are [described] ... as first peoples, because
their ancestors were the original inhabitants of their lands, since
colonized by foreigners. ... [Many refer to them as] indigenous, a term
widely accepted by the peoples themselves, and now adopted by the
United Nations (Burger, 1990, p. 16).
Today’s indigenous peoples are the descendants of the traditional owners
and occupiers of a country or region. They demonstrate diversity in culture,
religion and socio-economic organisation, both historically and currently. Many
reflection point
Identity is a simple yet complex set of ideas, and you may wonder why we are addressing it. a recent comment by
a student who had been visiting First nations community health services in canada, and interacting with the local
people, found an answer to that question. on reflection, she stated that she had not understood how important
identity was to indigenous people. however, she now realised that it was central to how they saw themselves, and who
they were. she said ‘I’m still not sure about what it is, but I get it! I see why!’Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
8 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
indigenous people argue that being indigenous is a state of mind and birth; most
retain their connection to traditional lands wherever they reside.
In 1990, the global indigenous population was approximately 300 million
across more than 70 countries (Burger, 1990). Indigenous groups are spread across
all inhabited continents and many islands; representing all regions. They include
the indigenous peoples of North and South America, the Inuit, Aleutians and
Saami of the circumpolar region, the Ma ̄ori of New Zealand and many inhabitants
of Europe, Asia and the Pacific region. Most groups have been subject to similar
colonial experiences, characterised by disadvantage, dispossession of traditional
lands, and loss or dilution of culture. Colonialism continues to occur wherever
dominant cultures attempt to suppress the traditional cultures within their
sphere of influence.
In the ‘global society’, so-called ‘simple’ societies are seen to be lacking in
technology. Some refuse to be influenced by or accept this, for example New
Guinea Highlander groups. Using traditional husbandry of their environment,
they contribute to sustainable development in the environment upon which
they have depended. Over generations, they have developed understanding and
respect for all living things in their world. Concepts of time, competition and
resource exploitation are not fundamental to indigenous people. Colonising
intruders raise tension or conflict between traditional cultural values and the
expectations of the introduced consumer-based, individual-oriented society.
Most ‘simple’ societies had complex kinship and relationship structures which
were meticulously handed down over generations to ensure survival. These
existed/exist in a spiritual as well as social context, and contain complexities
that Western languages lack the capacity to describe. Many indigenous people
retain a conscious spirituality within rich and diverse cultures and languages.
Aboriginal Australians refer to traditional lands as ‘Country’, and are central
to identity. Aboriginal people relate family to ‘country’, and acceptance by others
often relies on being able to identify ancestral lands. Yami Lester, a Maralinga
man who was blinded following the nuclear testing on his homelands, states an
Indigenous view of his ‘country’:
The country wasn’t just hills or creeks or trees. And I didn’t feel like it
was fairy tales they told me. It was real, our kuuti, the force that gives
us life. Somebody created it, and whoever created it did it for us, so we
could live and hunt and have a good time. That’s how we come to be
here because that malu and ngintaka created this image for us to live
and breathe: the plants, the language, the people (Lester, 1993, p. 10).
The attitudes of many indigenous people reflect Lester’s perceptions of himself
and his people as part of the landscape. Yami’s identity is inextricably linked to
‘Country’ is the ‘estate’
or central lands which
are traditionally
occupied by distinct
cultural groups (stanner,
1965).
aboriginal australian
is a person who is
a member of the
aboriginal people of
australia, who identifies
as an aboriginal person
and is accepted by the
aboriginal community
as an aboriginal person.
(aborigines is not a
commonly used term
among aboriginal
people today, and can be
viewed as offensive.)Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
indigenous people argue that being indigenous is a state of mind and birth; most
retain their connection to traditional lands wherever they reside.
In 1990, the global indigenous population was approximately 300 million
across more than 70 countries (Burger, 1990). Indigenous groups are spread across
all inhabited continents and many islands; representing all regions. They include
the indigenous peoples of North and South America, the Inuit, Aleutians and
Saami of the circumpolar region, the Ma ̄ori of New Zealand and many inhabitants
of Europe, Asia and the Pacific region. Most groups have been subject to similar
colonial experiences, characterised by disadvantage, dispossession of traditional
lands, and loss or dilution of culture. Colonialism continues to occur wherever
dominant cultures attempt to suppress the traditional cultures within their
sphere of influence.
In the ‘global society’, so-called ‘simple’ societies are seen to be lacking in
technology. Some refuse to be influenced by or accept this, for example New
Guinea Highlander groups. Using traditional husbandry of their environment,
they contribute to sustainable development in the environment upon which
they have depended. Over generations, they have developed understanding and
respect for all living things in their world. Concepts of time, competition and
resource exploitation are not fundamental to indigenous people. Colonising
intruders raise tension or conflict between traditional cultural values and the
expectations of the introduced consumer-based, individual-oriented society.
Most ‘simple’ societies had complex kinship and relationship structures which
were meticulously handed down over generations to ensure survival. These
existed/exist in a spiritual as well as social context, and contain complexities
that Western languages lack the capacity to describe. Many indigenous people
retain a conscious spirituality within rich and diverse cultures and languages.
Aboriginal Australians refer to traditional lands as ‘Country’, and are central
to identity. Aboriginal people relate family to ‘country’, and acceptance by others
often relies on being able to identify ancestral lands. Yami Lester, a Maralinga
man who was blinded following the nuclear testing on his homelands, states an
Indigenous view of his ‘country’:
The country wasn’t just hills or creeks or trees. And I didn’t feel like it
was fairy tales they told me. It was real, our kuuti, the force that gives
us life. Somebody created it, and whoever created it did it for us, so we
could live and hunt and have a good time. That’s how we come to be
here because that malu and ngintaka created this image for us to live
and breathe: the plants, the language, the people (Lester, 1993, p. 10).
The attitudes of many indigenous people reflect Lester’s perceptions of himself
and his people as part of the landscape. Yami’s identity is inextricably linked to
‘Country’ is the ‘estate’
or central lands which
are traditionally
occupied by distinct
cultural groups (stanner,
1965).
aboriginal australian
is a person who is
a member of the
aboriginal people of
australia, who identifies
as an aboriginal person
and is accepted by the
aboriginal community
as an aboriginal person.
(aborigines is not a
commonly used term
among aboriginal
people today, and can be
viewed as offensive.)Sample only
Oxford University Press ANZ
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