Immigration and Gender Disparities

This assignment delves into the multifaceted relationship between immigration and gender disparities in Canada. It examines the experiences of immigrant women, highlighting their contributions, challenges they face (e.g., employment rates, social integration), and the influence of Canadian immigration policies on these issues. Drawing upon diverse sources like academic research, policy reports, and statistical data, the assignment aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of this complex topic.

Table of Contents
Chapter Two: Theoretical/Literature Review..................................................................................2
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................2
2.2 Global Immigration Patterns: Implications on immigrants and host countries.........................2
2.3 Situation of Immigration in Canada......................................................................................4
2.3.1 Types of immigrants in Canada......................................................................................7
2.3.2 Trends of immigration population..................................................................................8
2.3.3 Reasons behind immigrations to Canada......................................................................10
2.4 Socio-economic wellbeing Research...................................................................................15
2.5 Country profile (Nigeria).....................................................................................................17
2.4.1 Factors That Compel Nigerian Immigration.................................................................18
2.4.2 Immigration of Nigerian residents to Canada...............................................................23
2.4.3 Obstacles immigrants experience in the Labor Market................................................25
2.5 Theoretical frameworks.......................................................................................................28
2.5.1 The Neo-classical economic approach.........................................................................28
2.5.2 The New Economics of labour Migration (NELM).....................................................30
2.6 Literature Gap......................................................................................................................32
2.7 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................33
Chapter Three: Research Methodology.........................................................................................34
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................34
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3.2 Aim of the Research............................................................................................................34
3.3 Study Participants................................................................................................................35
3.4 Research Design..................................................................................................................36
3.5 Research Philosophy............................................................................................................37
3.6 Research Approach..............................................................................................................39
3.7 Research Method.....................................................................................................................40
3.8 Research Strategy................................................................................................................41
3.9 Recruitment technique and study population......................................................................43
3.10 Interview Guide.................................................................................................................44
3.10.1 Developing the Interview Guide.................................................................................45
3.11 Data Collection Sources....................................................................................................46
3.12 Data Collection Process.....................................................................................................47
3.13 Validity and Reliability of Instruments.............................................................................50
3.14 Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................51
3.15 Ethical considerations........................................................................................................53
3.16 Research Challenges and Limitations................................................................................54
3.17 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................55
References......................................................................................................................................56
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Chapter Two: Theoretical/Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Many scholars have defined the term “Immigration” in various ways over the years.
However, one of the most broad and inclusive definition of the term, as has been mentioned in
the works of Hollifield, Martin & Orrenius (2014), is that of the phenomenon of leaving an
individual’s home country or the place of origin for the purpose of settling down in some other
foreign country either permanently or at least for a prolonged period. According to the assertions
of Ewing (2012), which is strongly supported by a major share of scholarly evidences across the
world, over the last century, there have been significant changes in the dynamics and the patterns
of immigration, both quantitatively as well as qualitatively. Immigration has over the years
increased massively, the increase being more prominent post-Globalization, which has
contributed in making the socio-economic environment of the world more inclusive and highly
inter-connected (Cohen, Humphries & Mynott, 2014).
2.2 Global Immigration Patterns: Implications on immigrants and host countries
As has been discussed in the previous section of the project, immigration as a global
phenomenon has increased considerably in the last few decades, owing to the economic, social
and political aspects present in the developed and developing countries. There has been however,
significant change in the pattern of flow of immigrants between the developed and the developed
countries with time, which has been put forward in the elaborate works of Bowen & Wu (2013).
In their literary works, the authors have portrayed an almost reversal of the trends of global
immigration over the years.
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According to the above-mentioned authors, before 1914, the global immigration policies
were mostly liberal or open and immigration was viewed as one of the primary source of labor
force building and economic development in the countries. The pattern of immigration in the
then global scenario was mostly from the developed to the developing countries. This, supported
by the empirical evidences found in the works of Boswell (2012), shows that during that time,
immigration from one of the most developed places, Europe alone amounted to more than 25
million. This period, was however, followed by a period of limited migration (1920s and 1930s),
which can be primarily attributed to the economic depression in the global scenario and an
ensuing deportation of the migrants.
The trends of migration from developed to developing countries, however, started
shifting gradually post 1945, as suggested by Walton-Roberts (2016). The open policies as well
as economic growth of the developed countries and the scope of a better life in those countries
started attracting people from the developing countries to the same, with the rate being 12% of
the total global immigration. This trend, however, increased significantly by 1973. From this
period, of the total global immigration, nearly 88% started taking place from the developing and
less developed countries to the developed ones. The policies of immigration in the developed
countries remained relatively open but started to incorporate stringent requirements as with time
these countries started facing the issue of increase in the number of refugees and illegal
immigrants Muste (2013). The issue of the increase in the number of illegal immigrants and war
refugees from politically unstable countries, though being primarily experienced by the USA,
Canada was also among those countries facing similar issues and concerns in their immigrant
populations.
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A broad range of demographic, economic and social characteristics is associated with the
lived experience of immigrants to understand their perspective on socio-economic wellbeing in
Canada. Around the world, societies are changing and individuals are on the move: around 250
million people currently live outside their country of origin. This evolving situation presents
opportunities for all concerned: diversity and exchange across national borders provide impetus
for economic, political and social progress – both in host countries and in countries of origin.
Migrants themselves play an important role in building bridges between countries. Through their
expertise, ideas, experience and contacts, they stimulate sustainable change. In a variety of ways,
they help their countries of origin to remain competitive, while simultaneously shaping society in
their host countries.
2.3 Situation of Immigration in Canada
Canada, as one of the developed nations in the global framework, has experienced
significant economic growth and industrial and commercial prosperity over the last century. The
country has a highly productive agricultural sector along with extremely prosperous and
expanding service sector.
The economy of the country has grown consistently over the years, according to the
assertions of the empirically supported literary works of many scholars across the globe.
Southcott & Walker (2015), for instance, in their extensive working paper, suggests that much of
the economic prosperity of the country over the years has contributed positively to the overall
quality of lives of the residents of the country, by increasing their economic, social and overall
welfare. This assertion, is both theoretically and empirically supported by the findings of the
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Center For The Study of Living Standards, which tries to link the economic growth of Canada
over the years, with the economic well being of the residents of the country, as can be seen from
the following figure:
Figure 3: Increase in the Index of Economic Well-being with the increase in per-capita
GDP
(Source: Csls.ca, 2018)
The index of economic well-being is an economic tool for the measurement of the overall
prosperity and economic stability enjoyed by the population in general of a particular country at
a specific point of time. Thus, from the above figure, it can be clearly asserted that, Canada over
the years has experienced a visible increase in its per-capita GDP, which in turn can be positively
linked to the economic well-being of the residents of the country, which is also seen to be
increasing mostly at par with the per-capita GDP of the country.
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The country, has however, not only experienced progress in terms of economic
parameters but also has been able to achieve considerable stability in terms of the overall social
and political aspects, which also contribute significantly in creating a prosperous and favorable
living environment for the residents of the country (Harrod & O'Brien, 2012). Together, these
economic prosperity, industrial and commercial expansion and the socio-political stability in the
country have attracted people from all parts of the world, especially from the developing
countries with low standard of living and lesser educational and employment scopes. Over the
last century, Canada has experienced considerable increase in the number of immigrants coming
in the country from all parts of the world, which can be seen from the following figure:
Figure 4: Increase in the immigration in Canada over the last few decades
(Source: Statcan.gc.ca, 2018)
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The above figure shows that over the last few decades immigration has increased
considerably in Canada with the rate gaining more impetus from 1971 to 2011. People from all
parts of the world tend to immigrate to Canada for different reasons and the immigrant
population of the country consists of different types of people, which primarily includes family
class, refugees, economic immigrants and other people who come for other purposes like
education or for health purposes.
2.3.1 Types of immigrants in Canada
Duncan & Ley (2013), in their literary works, efficiently categorizes the total immigrant
population of Canada into the different types mentioned above and also try to analyze the trends
in the dynamics of each of these categories as well as the total immigrant population over the
years. The empirical evidences of the Citizenship and Immigration Canada as can be seen from
the following figure support their assertions:
Figure 5: Trends in immigration in Canada over the years (2008-2012)
(Source: Cic.gc.ca, 2018)
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The trends showed in the above figure indicates that of the total immigrant population of
the country, which maintains an overall increasing trend, the primary share consists of the
economic immigrants, followed by the family classes. However, Canada also hosts a significant
share of refugees, many of whom comes from war stricken or poverty-stricken politically and
economically unstable countries.
Castles, De Haas & Miller (2013), tries to define the nature of the immigrants in Canada
according to the above-mentioned classifications. According to their assertions, family class
immigrants in Canada refer to the people closely related to the residents of the country who are
living in Canada. Family class immigrants in Canada form the second largest immigration group
after the economic immigrants, who are defined by the authors as those skilled labors or business
people who immigrate to the country for greater economic and career scopes. The refugees, who
form a large share of the Canadian population, are defined as those people who tend to escape
from their home countries for avoiding persecution or to escape unusual punishments and
tortures. Apart from these three prominent categories in the immigrant population of the country,
there also remain other immigrants who move to the country for different humanitarian or
compassionate causes and are provided shelter and sustenance by the country (Kaplan, 2015).
However, several empirical evidences in the contemporary period regarding the patterns
of immigration in Canada shows visible shift of the number of immigrants from family class
ones to the economic ones, as can be seen from the following figure:
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Figure 6: Dynamics in the number of family class immigrants in Canada
(Source: Cic.gc.ca, 2018)
As is evident from the above figure, there has been an overall decrease in all the sub-
categories of family class immigrants in Canada, which includes spouses, children, senior family
members and others. This is explained by Laferrière (2014) as being a reason of convenience. As
the author argues, with increased facility and convenience of transport as well as money
transfers, most principal immigrants are nowadays, preferring to migrate alone and send the
facilities and financial aids to their families staying in the home countries. However, though this
is especially common trait among temporary immigrants, this is not the case for those
immigrants or refugees who leave their countries and migrate to Canada for socio-economic as
well as political instabilities in their home countries.
In this context, Costigan, Lehr & Miao (2016), highlights the aspects of the difference
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between the two major types of immigrants coming down to Canada over the years, with respect
to their nature of activities and level of dependency. These two broad sub-groups of the total
immigrant population in Canada are namely the principal immigrants and the dependent
immigrants. As per the assertions of Pratt (2015), the principal immigrants are those immigrants
who apply as the beneficiary of the visa petition to the country he or she is immigrating from his
or her home country. On the other hand, dependent immigrants are those who come with and as
responsibilities of the principal applicant for immigration in the country.
Figure 7: Male and female principal immigrants in Canada over the years (2005-2015)
(Source: Immigration, 2018)
As can be seen from the above figure, the number of female principal immigrants in
Canada has increased considerably over the last few years, thereby reducing the considerably
high existing gap between male and female principal immigrants in the country. To be specific,
the gap has reduced by 55% from 2005 to 2015, which in turn indicates towards the fact that the
country has been taking robust and effective strategies for recognition of the importance of
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addressing gender parity in immigration and that of the significance of the human capital and
potential of the female immigrants in the country.
2.3.2 Trends of immigration population
According to the empirical evidences provided by Banting & Soroka (2012), immigrants
from around 190 countries have migrated in Canada, with the numbers continually increasing
with time. Of these countries, the ones contributing significantly to the immigrant population of
Canada can be seen from the following figure:
Figure 8: Country wise immigrant population in Canada
(Source: Canadaimmigrants.com, 2018)
From the above figure, it can be seen that the immigrant population of Canada primarily
consists of Philippines, India, Syria and China, with the share of immigrants coming from
Pakistan and USA also increasing over the past few years. As is evident from the above figure, a
significant share of the immigrant population consists of people coming from Nigeria in the
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contemporary period.
The immigrants tend to migrate in different parts of the country, of which the primary
ones being the metropolitan zones of Ontario, Alberta, British Columbia and others. The
different places in Canada and the percentage of immigrant population living in those places can
be shown with the help of the following figure formed from the empirical evidences in the
Canada Immigration Newsletter:
Figure 9: Immigration to Canada by different provinces (2015-2016)
(Source: Cicnews.com, 2018)
From the above figure, it can be seen that apart from the above-mentioned populous
metropolitan provinces, the Manitoba region of Canada also hosts a considerable share of the
total immigrant population coming in the country over the years. Of the different countries from
which immigrants come to settle in these places, Nigeria is a significant one, with an increasing
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number of people coming to Canada from the same over the years.
2.3.3 Women immigrants in Canada
There are considerable literary evidences present in the current framework, which try to
compare and contrast the scenarios of immigration in Canada, over the years, with respect to the
two genders. As has been in the previous discussion, over the years, the number of women
immigrants, both dependent as well as principal, has increased considerably over the last few
years in Canada, thereby considerably reducing the male-female gap in the same. However, the
conditions of women are still comparatively poorer than their male counterparts as per the
assertions of Rose & Dyck (2018). As the authors argue in their paper, the economic conditions
of the recent women immigrant have been deteriorating with the participation of women
immigrants declining considerably. Their views are supported empirically in the following
figure:
Figure 10: Rates of employment of women in Canada over the years, by immigration status
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(Source: Statcan.gc.ca, 2018)
Rose & Dyck (2018), also argues that the decline in the job prospects and economic stabilities of
the migrant women in Canada can be attributed to the less scopes of the same in job and
language trainings, which are further due to the limited exposure of the same as they tend to be
burdened with greater domestic and household responsibilities than their male counterparts as
well as the from the Canadian born women.
2.3.3 Reasons behind immigrations to Canada
The experiences of immigrants during the settlement process can be examined from a
number of different perspectives. This study examines the economic perspective in terms of
immigrants’ labour market and financial experiences and social characteristics in terms of the
roles played by social networks and community-based organizations. This section of the study
tries to discuss the primary reasons behind the choice of migrating from different countries and
settling in other foreign countries, as can be found in different literary works regarding this
aspect in a global framework.
Migration Choices
People move across countries for many reasons. International questionnaires provide some
evidence of migrant rationales, particularly surrounding the choice of destination country.
Generally according to Kerr and Kerr (2008), migrants frequently cite higher income levels,
better personal safety, short distance to home countries, and established immigrant networks as
the main reasons for choosing their new host countries. Much research studies highlights
economic, social and migration policy as dominant factors. These factors relate with Lee (1966)
conclusion on migration when he stated that the decision to migrate is determined by the
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following factors: factors associated with the area of origin; factors associated with the area of
destination; so-called intervening obstacles (such as distance, physical barriers, immigration
laws, and so on); and personal factors. Particularly in Canada where this study is focused, Picot
(2013) asserts that the number and type of immigrants entering Canada typically focuses on a
number of economic, demographic, humanitarian and social objectives. According to
Shackelford (2010), social and economic factors are motivations behind much of the
immigration to the U.S., including those pulled by opportunity or pushed by economic
disadvantage in their homeland.
Economic decisions
Economic theory most prominently highlights the international labor mobility that descends from
wage differences across countries. This is collaborated by the statement: “…differences in net
economic advantages, chiefly differences in wages, are the main causes of migration” (Hicks,
1932, p. 76). A study by Ravenstein (1885; 1889), in which he formulated his “laws of
migration” saw migration as an inseparable part of development, and he asserted that the major
causes of migration were economic. Econometric studies tend to support these conclusions, and
the importance of income differentials is also evident in comparisons of income or GDP levels
between host and source countries (OECD, 2000; Coppel et al., 2001; Munshi, 2003; Mandor,
2007; and Kerr, 2008). Ruhs (2008) notes that economics provides more powerful lessons for the
selection of migrants.
According to the works of Picot & Sweetman (2012), one of the primary reasons behind
the increased immigration in Canada is economic. As per the assertions of the authors, people
tend to migrate from all parts of the world to the country due to economic prosperity and
employment scopes which the country tends to offer, which in turn indicates towards a better
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standard of living and a superior quality of life. The dynamics in the economic immigrants’
population in the country over the years is shown in the following figure:
Figure 11: Economic immigrants (Gender wise) in Canada over the years
(Source: Immigrants in Canada, by gender 2000-2017 | Statistic", 2018)
Walton-Roberts (2012), denotes the economic factors present in Canada as one of the
primary “Pull Factors” which attracts people from all parts of the world. On the other hand the
primary “Push Factor” is the regional tensions and inferior quality of life which pushes people
out of their home countries, especially the less developed, economically and politically unstable
ones and force them to immigrate in Canada.
Social decisions
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The classical explanation is that relative, real wages and employment opportunities are
some of the main driving factors of international migration. Other more recent explanations
focus on the effects of the welfare state regimes. In other words, Peder, Mariola and Nina (2004)
grouped into social networks, cultural and linguistic distance, and threat to own freedom and
Safety as some of the factors that compel people to move. They further assert that generous
social services and benefit levels which characterized many OECD countries may also affect
migration decisions (Peder, Mariola and Nina, 2004). Borjas (1999b) focuses on the level of
welfare programs as a pull factor for potential immigrants and introduces the ‘welfare magnet’
concept. There is also the issue of network effects on migration and the link is related to ethnic
groups. For instance, if the concerned ethnic group is already present in the destination country,
it may induce further immigration from the ethnic group concerned. Likewise, many students
from developing economies migrate to advanced countries, for either short or long durations, to
study in the schools and universities of advanced countries where scholarships and bursaries are
mostly available (Borjas 2009).
According to Shackelford (2010), a key indicator of an immigrant’s immediate
socioeconomic level is education and skill, including English language capability. He continues
that while employers recruit those with valuable education and training, those seeking to raise
their subsistence minimum face difficult competition for jobs. All these are influenced by the
language of the immigrant. To Shackelford, Language appears to be a key factor in terms of both
employment prospects and overall socioeconomic status, therefore those who speak little or no
English are at an increased, and long‐term, disadvantage (Shackelford, 2010).
Migration Policy
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The observed (ex post) migration patterns during the last two decades are the outcome of
a mix of ex ante migration forces and migration policy (Pedersen and Smith, 2002). In economic
theory, human capital has increasingly been recognized as a crucial factor in the process of
economic development in modernizing societies (Becker 1962; Sjaastad, 1962). Human capital
theory assumes that personal assets such as skills, education, and physical abilities are
fundamental “capitals” that boost economic production (De Hass, 2008). The policy is
considered as the internal structure and segmentation of labour markets as well as the relevance
of individual socio-economic characteristics and “capitals” in the migration decision (Bauer and
Zimmermann 1998:99).
In Canada according to Picot (2013), the most cited economic objective relates to filling
occupational shortages. He outlined in his analysis of two possible types: “current” labour
shortages associated with mismatches of various types, and longer term aggregate labour supply
shortages of the type associated with the aging of the population and increased retirements.
These two factors affect design of the migration policy. According to migration policy, changes
may be important factors behind the observed development. For instance in The Anglo-Saxon
countries(the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand),migration is characterized by selective
immigration policies where immigrants are supposed to provide specific characteristics such as
‘’highly-skilled qualities’’ before been selected.
2.4 Socio-economic wellbeing Research
In an annual assessment of migrant wellbeing, the Gallup Annual World Poll (2013) used
two sets of objectives (income levels, shelter, nutrition and employment opportunities) and
subjective (as life satisfaction, and positive and negative emotions) to assess the economic
wellbeing of migrants in 150 countries. With a background understanding of the- north and the
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south divide representing economically rich and poor countries respectively, the survey findings
indicate economic factors of both countries, along with individual factors as the most
determining factor of their social wellbeing. Migrants moving from north (high income earning)
to other north countries had positive outcomes on life satisfaction, emotional positivity, personal
and financial security, health and community attachment in their host countries. Migrants from
South (economically poor) to other South destinations faced more significant challenges. They
were the least optimistic about their lives and found it difficult to achieve a satisfactory standard
of living. Furthermore, migration seems to make little difference to them financially. Personal
safety was also of highest concern among such group of migrants. These South to South
migrants also lacked confidence in their host countries and reported the least community
attachment and most health concerns.
Those migrating between the north and south, in either direction, had mixed experiences.
Generally, economic factors are the most significant determinant of their socio economic
wellbeing; those migrating from the north to the south enjoy greater economic success, as might
be expected for those moving to an environment with relatively low living costs. Conversely,
those moving from the south to the north suffered economic disparity compared to the native-
born; they struggled to make the transition but were nevertheless relatively better off financially
for having migrated than those who did not migrate (World Migration report, 2013).
Safi (2010) shows that on the average migrants are less happy than native populations
regarding south-north migration, this holds true even when other variables are controlled, such as
when comparing migrants to natives who have the same characteristics or circumstances – the
same income, employment status, relationship status, health and so on. It might be expected that
happiness would increase over time as migrants assimilate into new societies, but this is not so,
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according to Safi’s research on immigrants in Europe, immigrants are not able to properly blend
with the native born of the receiving country (Safi, 2010).
Keeping the above discussions into consideration, the concerned study tries to look into
the scenario of the Nigerian immigrants and their perceptions and problems in settlement in
Canada. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for the concerned study to analyze the country
profile of Nigeria and the trends and patterns of immigration from the country over the years.
2.5 Country profile (Nigeria)
Nigerian occupies 351,200 square miles on the southern coast of West Africa. It is
bordered to the north by Niger, west to the Republic of Benin, and east to Chad and Cameroon
(Falola, 2001). The country boasts of 250 ethnic and linguistic groups with three being in the
majority; Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo. Members of each ethnic group speak same language (Falola,
2001). Nigeria is known as the most populous country in Africa with an estimated population of
186 million (World Bank, 2016). The country is made up of 36 states with each having its own
political and judicial autonomy forming a federal republic. The Northern part of Nigeria is
predominantly Muslim whiles the south is predominantly Christian (de Haas, 2006).
Despite the country’s vast oil wealth and impressive economic growth, many Nigerians
are caught up in extreme poverty. The World Bank’s 2017 Atlas of Sustainable Development
Goals, reports that 35 million Nigerians were living in extreme poverty (living on less than $1.90
a day) in 2013 than in 1990 ( world Bank, 2017). One of the striking trends in the country is that
of the burden of poverty, which has surprisingly increased over the years as shown by the
following figure obtained from the National Bureau of Statistics of Nigeria:
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Figure 12: Increasing poverty in Nigeria over the years
(Source: Nigerianstat.gov.ng, 2018)
2.4.1 Factors That Compel Nigerian Immigration
Migration is not a new phenomenon to the African continent; for as long as communities
have existed, there has been migration among many ethnic groups within Africa mainly for
economic reasons. However, with globalization, migration from Africa towards the developed
economies and more advanced polities of the world has intensified. There are debates as to what
influence migration of the African people, however, one cannot attribute the phenomenon to just
one stop event but come with complex mix of factors that generate the desire to migrate.
Using a migration-based approach, the appropriate theory that
explains why individuals leave their country to other places as residents is
the push and pull theory developed by Lee. Lee's Push-Pull theory (Lee,
1966) summarizes the motivations for migration by considering how the
relationship between two points (origin and destination) are affected by push
factors and pull factors. Push and Pull factors are forces or elements that can
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either induce people to move to a new location or oblige them to leave old
residences
Various studies (Takyi & Konadu-Agyemang, 2006; Yewah & Togunde, 2010) have
highlighted issues such as political and civil instability as culminated in wars, famine, ecological
disasters, unemployment, underemployment, low wage structures for professionals, fear of
persecution, political instability, deteriorating tertiary education, globalization and returnees’
roles in spurring further migration as reasons pushing migrants from African to the advanced
world with Nigeria been no exception. These are considered as the ‘push factors’ which are those
conditions in the immigrants’ home country that ‘push’ them to migrate.
Other scholars (Okome, 2003, 2006; Udogu, 2004) also attribute the migration
phenomenon into broad category as ‘pull factors’. These they describe as conditions in the host
country that make it an attractive destination for African immigrants; these have been identified
as improved or better standards of living, opportunities for higher income, safe environments,
opportunities for professional development among others.
In case of Nigeria, of the above-mentioned generic factors, the primary ones, as put
forward by various literatures over the last few years, are discussed as follows:
Poverty
As discussed above, Nigeria, in spite of its robust oil industry and other economic
progress, till now remains one of the most poverty stricken regions in the global framework as
can be seen from the following figure:
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Figure 13: Extreme poverty rates by developing nations over the years
(Source: Newgeography.com, 2018)
As is evident from the above figure, Nigeria is one of those developing countries whose
population under extreme poverty rate has considerably increased from 1981 to 2008, whereas
for almost all the other countries the same has decreased considerably. This in turn indicates
towards the fact that the economic and overall welfare of the residents of the country has been
decreasing over the last few decades, which act as one of the primary “Push Factors”, compelling
them to migrate to other economically robust countries.
Lack of employment generation
Asaju, Arome & Anyio (2014), puts forward another primary factor in Nigeria, which
encourages immigration from the country to a considerable extent. This is the problem of the
lack of generation of sufficient employment scopes for the residents of the country, which in turn
is one of the factors contributing to the increasing poverty in the nation.
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Figure 14: Unemployment rate in Nigeria (2010-2016)
(Source: Tradingeconomics.com, 2018)
The above figure, supporting the argument of the authors, shows that the rate of
unemployment which was significantly high in Nigeria in 2010, decreased significantly by 2012.
However, post 2014, the rate again started rising considerably and currently the rate of
unemployment in the country is strikingly high, which in turn acts as one of the primary factors
which induce immigration from the country as people try to move and settle in those countries
where they find job prospects and better economic opportunities.
Terrorism and Social Tensions
Apart from the economic aspects of the country, which has been continually deteriorating
in the last few decades, there is another bothering issue faced by the country in the contemporary
period, which in turn is linked to the stagnation in progress of the country. This is the issue of
social tensions and various terrorist activities, which the country faces in the contemporary
period. Joshua & Chidozie (2014), argues that the Nigeria consistently faces hurdles in everyday
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lives due to the clash of the various militant interest groups among themselves as well as with the
government. This in turn leads to huge loss of lives as well as properties in the country, thereby
hampering the socio-economic and political stability of the country, which reduces the overall
welfare of the residents of the country considerably.
Figure 15: Countries with highest number of deaths due to terrorism (2014)
(Source: Abc.net.au, 2018)
As can be seen from the above figure, Nigeria ranks second after Iraq in the aspect of the
countries in the world with the highest number of terrorism related deaths and is considered as
one of the five countries in the world, which together accounts for 80% of the global terrorism
related casualties. This in turn decreases the economic and social welfare of the residents of the
country and acts as the most important “Push Factor” for them to move out of the country for
survival and a better life with less threats of getting killed (Okoli & Iortyer, 2014).
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2.4.2 Immigration of Nigerian residents to Canada
The above-mentioned factors together compel a considerable number of people in the
country to migrate to other countries, especially developed and economically progressive ones,
in search of a better life style, job, education and an overall increased welfare. In this context,
Darkwah & Verter (2014), try to show the general pattern of the immigration of the Nigerians in
the current period. According to them, the primary countries to which the Nigerians usually
migrate are the United States of America, the United Kingdom, South Africa and Canada
specifically. Their assertions are supported by the empirical evidences, which are shown as
follows:
Figure 16: Countries where Nigerians immigrate
(Source: Noi-polls.com, 2018)
Thus, it can be asserted that Canada is one of the prominent developed countries, which attracts
significant immigrants from Canada over the years. The immigrants tend to settle in various
metropolitan cities and other places of the country, which is shown as follows:
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Figure 17: Place wise settlement of Nigerians in Canada
(Source: Canadaimmigrants.com, 2018)
Over the years, the number of Nigerian immigrants has been increasing consistently and
the country has seen increased number of new permanent residents from Nigeria, which can be
seen from the empirical evidences provided by the Government of Canada, which is seen as
follows:
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Figure 18: New permanent Nigerian residents in Canada over the years
(Source: Canada.ca, 2018)
Thus, from the above discussion, based on the literary evidences it can be argued that a
significant share of the Nigerian immigrants have been coming in Canada over the years, with
the number increasing with time.
2.4.3 Obstacles immigrants experience in the Labor Market
While the statistics show that more than half of immigrants enter Canada with economic
intentions, concerns have also been raised about the barriers faced by all immigrants in
integrating into the country’s labour force (Javdani, Jacks and Pendakur, 2012). There is clear
evidence that immigrants face barriers in accessing employment, and it is even more difficult to
29

find employment that equates to the skills, experience and knowledge gained prior to entering
Canada (Bevelander and Pendakur, 2012). In many cases, new immigrants experience multiple
difficulties when seeking employment. Work experience is central, language barriers are another
challenge, lack of acceptance of foreign qualifications, the importance of contacts and networks
in the job market and lack of employment opportunities (Schellenberg, Grant, and Hélène
Maheux, 2007).Slade (2008) describes lack of Canadian experience as the “new head tax” levied
on new immigrants to limit their participation in the labour force.
Existing literature also identifies sex and racialization as key determinants to the
economic experience of immigrants in Canada (Gilmore, 2008). Among the general population,
Gilmore stipulates that Canadian-born employees earn more than immigrant employees and the
gap in wage difference is reported to have increased most significantly after the year 2000
(Gilmore, 2008; Liu, 2006). With regards to sex, Chui and Mahuex (2011) report that more
women than men occupy precarious employment conditions, they also indicated that generally
racialized women are more likely to get part time jobs than racialized men.
Picot and Sweetman in 2011 identified proficiency in English as the most important
factor for obtaining employment. While language proficiency is not a major determining factor
that influences getting a job, says Grondin, it relates directly to the kind and quality of job an
immigrant obtains and will be a contributing factor to the economic status of an immigrant
(Grondin, 2007; Picot and Sweetman, 2011). In short, language may prevent some immigrants
from getting good jobs but it is not sufficient to prevent them from being unemployed.
Schmidt (2010) examines employer’s perceptions in a qualitative study and reveals that
most Canadian employers do not want to invest in training immigrants because they were
30

uncertain about how long they were going to stay at that job or in Canada. Interviews with
foreign-educated teachers and interviews with government officials suggests that there is an
abundance of teachers in Manitoba and so employers prefer those with Canadian training
experience-particularly only those teachers educated in Manitoba. Schmidt (2010) also argues
that, not hiring immigrant teachers because of their lack of Canadian credentials and experience
amounts to discrimination “that marginalizes immigrant teachers and excludes them from the
Manitoba education system” (p.249). Such acts of discrimination she stipulates leaves
immigrants to menial jobs where they relatively earn less, do not use their educational
qualifications, resulting in economic hardships during their first few years.
Zaman (2010) also supports this observation about the foreign credential recognition
process in Canada and the difficulties that Pakistani immigrant women experience when trying to
find work. She argues that, only highly skilled immigrants are being accepted into Canada with
the hope that they will contribute to the Canadian economy. However, once these women arrive,
they face other barriers such as racism, sexism, and xenophobia which limit their ability to find
jobs that are relevant to their experience (Zaman, 2010). Martin and Reid (2007) find that
women whose husbands were not able to find jobs with good incomes struggle economically in
their first two years and are not able to properly blend into their new society(Martin and Reid,
2007).
Within the family are important gender dynamics to consider. Zaman (2010) finds that
when the husbands of married women were employed but their wives were not, the couples were
more likely to maintain values from their own cultural background. Such women formed
friendships with people from the same or similar cultural background and adapted better in their
own perspective to new economic, social, and political climate in Canada. She also finds that
31

when women were able to wear their cultural or religious dress, get guidance from people who
were from the same cultural background, and balance their roles like a mother and wife, it eased
their transition into Canadian societies. These women showed relatively less economic stress
even though they considered their individual and household earnings as insufficient.
2.5 Theoretical frameworks
Attempts at understanding immigrants in view of their economic pursuits have largely
focused on two key areas: these have been the neo–classical economic studies (Todaro, 1969;
Todaro and Maruszko 1987) which focuses on the economic aspirations of the individual
migrant and the New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM) (Stark, 1991; De Haas, 2010)
which understands the economically induced immigrant in a family context. Both theories agree
that the promise of better economic opportunities is vital in either individual or household
decision regarding migration.
2.5.1 The Neo-classical economic approach
The Neo-classical economic approach understands migration as a decision made by an
individual seeking a better life, which could include better job opportunities, job security and
higher wages. The migrant’s decision is based on an assessment of the factors which require
them to leave their home country and the factors that draw them to the destination country.
This reflects the micro-level understanding of the whole migration sphere which to De
Haas (2008), neo-classical migration theory views migrants as individual, rational actors, who
decide to move on the basis of a cost-benefit calculation. Assuming free choice and full access to
information, they are expected to go where they can be the most productive, that is, are able to
earn the highest wages. This capacity obviously depends on the specific skills a person possesses
and the specific structure of labour markets. Borjas (1989; 1990) postulated the idea of an
32

international immigration market, in which potential migrants base the choice of destination on
individual and cost-benefit calculations.
At the macro-level, neo-classical economic theory explains migration by geographical
differences in the supply and demand for labour. The resulting differentials in wages cause
workers to move from low-wage, labour-surplus regions to high-wage, labour scarce regions (De
Haas, 2008). Most papers that have explained these two sets of factors usually refer to them as
“push and pull” factors (Kline, 2003; Parkins,2010; Lee, 1966).The pull factors prevail in reality
or are perceived to exist in the destination country and the push factors manifest in the country of
origin. The theory considers each migrant to be a rational actor who chooses from a range of
destinations, the one that involves the least cost (the travel costs, the cost of living while looking
for work, the cost of finding a new home) and gives the most net gain (income). This is often
referred to as the ‘human capital’ approach according to De Haas (2008); within this framework
migration is seen as an investment decision.
Later models such as those put forward by Stouffer (1940) and Lee (1966) identified
other obstacles and opportunities encountered during the migration process to the pull-push
factors of the earlier model. These neoclassical models have been criticized for their narrow
focus on wage disparities between departure country and receiving country, and on the economic
motivations of potential migrants (Rodenburg, 1997), plus their almost exclusive focus on
econometrics and ignorance of personal experience.
These models, therefore, ignore the obvious fact that people migrate for reasons other
than income maximization, e.g., family reunification, seeking refuge or political asylum, a more
attractive culture, and religious beliefs (Bodvarsson and Van den Berg, 2013). Another weakness
of the neo-classical theoryis that it focusesso much on receiving-country demand factors, and
33

generally ignore how origin-country factors such as labour market structure, income levels and
inequalities, social security, conflict, states and public policies, affect migration.
2.5.2 The New Economics of labour Migration (NELM)
The New Economics of labour Migration (NELM) perspective (sometimes known as the
family investment hypothesis) was developed in the 1980s by Stark and Bloom (1985).This
model understands migration as a family rather than an individual survival
strategy. The model views immigrants in the context of their social networks and
see them and their family as a single, unified entity with altruistic members who cooperate for
the common good of the whole family. The new economics of labour migration (NELM)
hypothesizes that migration, particularly under conditions of poverty and risk, is difficult to
explain within a neo-classical framework. NELM conceptualizes migration as a collective
household strategy to overcome market failures and spread income risks rather than a mere
response of income-maximizing individuals to expected wage differentials (Stark 1991; Stark
and Bloom 1985; Taylor 1999). This gives considerable theoretical room to explain migration in
the absence of significant wage differentials. NELM also argues that income inequality and
relative deprivation within sending societies are major drivers of migration (Skeldon 2002; Stark
and Taylor 1989).
A key assumption of the NELM perspective is that in a family, individual interests are
subordinated in the interest of family goals. The theory identifies key members of the family as
decision makers on who should migrate and who should stay in the interest of the larger group.
If extra income is needed in the household, the choice about who should migrate will be made
based on the potential earnings of that individual at the destination country. Critiques of the
NELM approach like Chant (1998) point to the fact that families are better conceptualised as an
34

“uneasy aggregate of individual survival strategies”, or a “locus of competing interests, rights,
obligations and resources” (Chant 1998: 8). In his recognition of the fact that social relations
within a family shape decision-making, understanding the family as a unitary model rejects
examination of individual opportunities and motivations and ignores often conflicting aspirations
within the family.
Both theories have their strengths and weakness. The neo-classical economic approach
overlooks the interests of migration to the family as a unit and focuses on individual interests and
has the same numerous criticisms of human capital theory, but the NELM theory also overlooks
the interests of individuals and treats the interests of migration from a family perspective.
Critiques highlight that economic advantage is not the only motivation for migration and even
this cannot be reduced to simple differentials in wages and employment (Rodenburg, 1997;
Chant, 1998).
Most immigrants do not have full information on the alternatives of potential immigration
targets and often they perform only limited search. One possible way to reach relatively good
and safe decisions in the case of uncertainty and imperfect information is to decide on the basis
of migration network’s information. Massey et al. (1993) define migration networks as “…sets
of interpersonal ties that connect migrants, former migrants, and non-migrants in origin and
destination areas through ties of kinship, friendship, and shared community origin”.
The models of migration networks have been based on the network externalities theory.
For the purpose of this study, although it examines individual economic motivations, I
focus on the NELM theory. The NELM perspective broadens the theoretical understanding in
ways that draw in family correlates of actions and lived experiences that are related to social and
35

economic life of newcomers. The research question of perception examines factors that shape
newcomers insight on their economic and social wellbeing.
2.6 Literature Gap
From the above discussion and extensive review of the existing scholarly works and the
empirical evidences it can be asserted that immigration is one of the national issues of almost all
the countries in the world. While the primary concern of the developing countries is that of the
increasing number of residents of the countries going out and settling permanently in some other
countries, the major concern of the host countries (which are mostly the economically and
socially developed ones) is that of the inclusion of these migrants. This inclusion consists of not
only the provision of the means of sustenance and economic welfare to the immigrants but also
looking into the matter of their acculturation with the existing domestic population of the country
and their overall welfare and quality of life.
There are also presence of literatures and empirical evidences regarding the economic
and socio-political conditions prevailing in Nigeria, which compels immigrations in huge
numbers from the country to other parts of the world including Canada. However, there are little
literary evidences in the current framework, which highlights the experiences of these Nigerian
immigrants regarding their quality of life pre and post immigration from a socio-economic point
of view. The outlooks of the Nigerian immigrations regarding their current lives and the future
prospects of the same are also not elaborated in the current literary evidences in this aspect.
Keeping these gaps in the existing literatures into consideration, the current study tries to find
answers to the above questions with the help of proper research methods and interviews
conducted with the relevant personnel, which are elaborated in the following chapter.
36

2.7 Conclusion
In conclusion, it is assumed that potential migrants and for that matter immigrants, have
utility-maximizing behavior, compare alternative potential destination countries and choose the
country, which provides the best opportunities, all else equal. Immigrants’ decision to choose a
specific destination country depends on many factors, which relate to the characteristics of the
individual, the individual’s country of origin and all potential countries of destination. Keeping
these behavioral trends of the individuals in concern, the research tries to emphasize on the
above-mentioned aspects with respect to the Nigerian immigrants in Canada, especially in the
Manitoba region of the country.
37

Chapter Three: Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
For a research to be robust and farsighted and for effective contributions of the same for
future studying and development of further scope of exploration on the concerned aspects, it is of
crucial importance to design the research methodology efficiently and appropriately. This has to
be done by using those tools and research framework, which are relevant for the purpose of the
concerned study (Neuman, 2013). Keeping this into consideration, this chapter of the concerned
study presents the detailed description of the processes the researcher went through in
conducting the study. The research methodology chapter describes the materials and methods
adopted and the way the research has been conducted for the purpose of arriving at credible
findings of the study (Cicourel, 2016). It also includes the description of the study group
(Nigerian Immigrants); research design; sample and sampling methods; data collection
instruments; data analysis techniques and ethical considerations which have been incorporated
by the researcher while conducting the concerned research, which are discussed and elaborated
as follows.
3.2 Aim of the Research
In the contemporary world, immigration has become one of the global issues of primary
concern, especially in the developed countries as the burden of immigrants from all parts of the
world has been consistently increasing. On one hand, this immigration helps the developed
countries to build up their skill, knowledge base and labor force, by incorporating the skilled
personnel from different countries (Wahyuni, 2012). On the other hand, increasing number of
immigrants often gives rise to social, economic and political problems within the host countries,
which in turn have considerable implications on the lives of the domestic residents as well as the
38

immigrants. There also remain many hurdles, which have to be faced by the immigrants during
the settlement process in the foreign countries, which primarily include the economic aspects,
career growth as well as the abstract aspects of the sense of security and well-being and the
process of acculturation, which have considerable implications on the life of the immigrants
(Denscombe, 2014).
These aspects and the perceptions of the immigrants regarding their lives after migration
are taken into consideration in the concerned research, emphasizing specifically on the Nigerian
immigrant population in some specific regions of Canada. These aspects are of immense
significance as the welfare and economic prosperity of a huge share of the global immigrant
population depend on these perceptions and the economic and social situations which they face
during their settlement period in the foreign countries.
3.3 Study Participants
Participants for the study are Nigerian migrants living with immediate family members
(i.e. spouses, partners and children) in Winnipeg-Manitoba, Canada. The reason for selecting this
group for the study is that they are among the top ten source countries for immigrants to
Manitoba (Manitoba Immigration facts, 2014). Nigeria is ranked fourth with 4.1 per cent of
newcomers to Manitoba (Manitoba Labour and Immigration, 2014). Most newcomers arrive in
family units, so it is important to study the economic experiences of the family as a single unit as
household income is almost always pooled, and many who arrive alone subsequently sponsor
various family members in the future.
Participants have been in Canada for at least six months and not more than five years.
This timeline is appropriate because as previous studies have shown, the longer immigrants
39

remain in their host countries; the more economically successful they tend to become (Grant,
1999); therefore, the study might not reflect the true experiences of recent immigrants if the
timeline for inclusion goes beyond five years.
3.4 Research Design
According to Yin (2003), research design refers to the master plan or framework which
guides the conduct of a research. He identified three conditions that determine the choice of a
research design; these include the type of research questions asked, the researchers control over
actual behavior and the focus on current happenings. The aim of research design is to guide the
researcher through the process of collecting; analyzing and interpreting data (Yin, 2009).
There are in general three broad categories of research design, which are usually followed
while framing the methodology for any particular research. These are mainly explanatory,
descriptive and exploratory research design:
Figure 19: Types of research design
(Source: As created by the author)
40
Research
design
Explanatory Exploratory Descriptive

The explanatory design of research deals with the identification of the different types of
occurrence. On the other hand, the exploratory framework of research design tries to explore the
incidents in an in depth manner. The exploratory framework is often used in order to investigate
in detail about the specific aspects in consideration of the research. This method helps not only in
exploring the issues in depth but also helps in gaining insights about the occurrences and the
solutions of the problems considered (Maxwell, 2012).
The third type of research design is that of the descriptive design, which helps in
enhancing the knowledge base regarding the concerned study, by taking into account the events
occurring and describing them under the light of the conceptual and theoretical framework
(Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013). The current research follows an exploratory framework with
some descriptive elements in it, as the primary objective of the research is to explore the
perceptions of the immigrants and the socio-economic dynamics in Canada, which these
Nigerian immigrants are subjected to.
The study is primarily descriptive owing to the nature of domain in which it ventures and
the nature of the data it tries to analyze. The thesis tries to explore primarily the perceptions of
the selected Nigerian recently immigrating in Canada. The fields of the perceptions of the
participants which the study emphasizes upon are mainly the level of satisfaction of the
immigrants in different domains of their lives in the new country, the comparison of the same
with that of the level of satisfaction they used to enjoy in their home countries as well as the
problems and discriminations which the Nigerian immigrants perceive to be occurring in their
new life and in the environment where they are trying to adjust. These attributes being highly
abstract and subjective, descriptive method of research approach is required to comprehensively
incorporate all the opinions of the respondents and to analyze them effectively.
41

3.5 Research Philosophy
Research philosophy refers to the assumption and beliefs that govern the way we view
the world (Saunders et al., 2007); it underpins the general approach and direction that a
researcher chooses to go about the whole research. These assumptions about reality are closely
linked with the methodological approach pursued and the methods employed in collecting data,
as well as the sources from which the data are gained (Mason, 2002). In most cases, social
research is influenced by two broad philosophical dimensions; positivism and interpretivism
beliefs.
Figure 20: Types of research philosophy
(Source: As created by the author)
Positivists prefer scientific quantitative methods, while interpretivist prefers humanistic
qualitative method (Bryman, 2001).In other words, a qualitative researcher operates from an
42
Research
philosophy
Positivism
Interpretivism
Realism

interpretivist point of view, employing methods of data collection that are flexible and sensitive
to the social context in which the data are being produced (Grix, 2004).
To the interpretivist, reality is a complex social construction of meanings, values and
lived experience (Cohen et al., 2000; Grix, 2004). Thus, knowledge is therefore built through a
social construction of the world. The interpretivist therefore tends to employ research methods
and data collection techniques that allow the research subjects to interpret their own experience
of the world. This study sticks to the interpretivism philosophy, owing to the nature of the data
which are primarily qualitative in nature.
3.6 Research Approach
The research approach of a specific study shows the basic construct on the basis of which
the methodological framework of the concerned research is constructed. There are broadly two
types of research approaches, which are followed while forming the methodological construct of
a research. These approaches are inductive and deductive approaches (Smith, 2015).
Figure 21: Types of research approaches
43
Research
approach
Inductive
Deductive

(Source: As created by the author)
The deductive approach of research is used in those researches, which deals with the
testing of some pre-existing theories with the help of the empirical evidences and conceptual
frameworks prevalent in the concerned study. On the other hand, the inductive research approach
tries to study and interpret the relevant empirical evidences to reach to new conclusions and
generate new theories and hypothesis from the emerging data. In this context, the concerned
research follows an inductive approach as the study tries to analyze the data collected and reach
to effective conclusions and new theories regarding the perceptions and situations faced by the
Nigerian immigrants in their settlement process in Canada and their outlook about their future in
the concerned country.
3.7 Research Method
Although there are different types of research methods, the most common and widely
used methods involve; the qualitative and quantitative research methods. The quantitative
research method usually deals with the cardinal or numerical aspects of a research, thereby
facilitating the researchers to work with large samples very conveniently. However, there often
remains several ordinal or abstract aspects in a research, which cannot be cardinally included
into the research framework by the quantitative method, in spite of having considerable
implications on the results and occurrences which are studied in the concerned research
(Ormston et al., 2014). To take into account these aspects the qualitative research methods are
required, which helps the researchers to incorporate the abstract and the ordinal aspects, which
have significance in the concerned study.
A qualitative research design is adopted for this study in order to obtain in-depth
44

understanding and direct information from the experiences, perceptions and opinions of
participants as it relates to the research question-how do Nigerian immigrant families perceive
their socio-economic experience in Canada (Patton, 2002). The rationale for using this design is
that it mostly takes interpretive and naturalistic approach to its subject matter. Using qualitative
design, the researcher explores a social or human problem, builds a complex holistic picture,
analyses words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural
settings‘(Creswell, 1998: 15). The significance of qualitative research design for this study is that
it values the experience of research participants and therefore allows them to tell their life
experiences personally, in natural settings, with the aim of obtaining distinctive accounts of
participants’ stories without generalization (Platt, 2002).
3.8 Research Strategy
There are different types of qualitative methods in the research framework, which
primarily includes the following:
 Ethnographic Method- In this type of study the environment of the respondents or
relevant individual is studied in depth in order to understand the aspects, themes,
challenges and issues taken into consideration in the concerned research.
 Narrative Method- In this type of method, the stories and experiences of relevant
individuals are studied to form a cohesive theory, which tries to depict and interpret the
broader occurrences in the real case scenarios (Liamputtong, 2013).
 Phenomenological Method- This type of qualitative study aims to describe a particular
phenomenon or occurrence with the help of methods including exclusive interviews,
analysis of documents and other audio-visual evidences and the individual perspectives
of the respondents.
45

 Grounded Theory- Under this type of qualitative framework, theoretical or conceptual
framework is tries to be provided by the researcher behind the events studied in any
concerned research (Ezzy, 2013).
 Case Study- This is one of the most widely used qualitative research method, where the
situation of concern in the particular research is studied extensively with the help of other
relevant data to understand, interpret the situations and to provide recommendations if
necessary.
Within the qualitative research design, the case study strategy was used to examine immigrants
and their families’ economic wellbeing as part of the larger process of integration. According to
Yin (2003), case study designs are particularly necessary for research studies that seek to explore
or explain the “why” “how” and “what” aspects of research study. Muijs (2004) indicates that
qualitative approaches, including a case study, are appropriate if researchers want to get under
the ‘skin’ of a problem, as noted earlier. Using semi-structured interviews and informal
discussions when and where necessary ensured that the data collection process was rigorous. I
also thought of the extensive nature of data gathering that case studies offer to researchers as
indicated by Donavan and Saunders (2005) who states that a case study must involve the
collection of very extensive data to produce understanding of the entity being studied.
Despite the benefits that case studies offer to researchers, it has some limitations including the
findings being subjective and not scientific. The findings of a case study could be influenced by
the personal opinions and beliefs of the researcher, leading to subjectivity (Verma and Mallick,
1999; Muijs, 2004). Henn et al. (2006) argues that in deciding what to include and what not to,
we must accept that we are introducing a degree of subjectivity, but this study ensures a balanced
picture of the data from different participants which provides accounts of a competing
46

perspectives.
The study explores individual lived experiences and expectations through semi-structured
interviews with the aid of a question guide. These questions are open-ended in nature, allowing
participants to express their feelings, lived experiences and expectations which make the data
more reliable and valid. Again, the question guide is adjusted to draw relevant information
whenever it becomes necessary.
3.9 Recruitment technique and study population
A population is a group of individuals, persons, objects, or items from which samples are
taken for measurement (Saunders et al., 2007:101). The entire group of individuals about whom
information is gathered is the target population. Based on this, the target population for this study
is Nigeria immigrants residing in Winnipeg- Manitoba. Participants are adult (18 years of age or
older) and must have come with or joined a family already in Canada.
The study employed non-probability sampling methods in the selection of the study
participants. Under this sampling method, the purposive and snowball techniques in recruiting
participants were employed. Tongco (2007) explained purposive sampling as a non-probability
technique that does not require underlying theories or a set number of informants. The researcher
decides on what to study and sets out to find people who are willing to provide information by
virtue of knowledge or experience. This point supports Neuman (2000) who posits that purposive
sampling is used when one selects respondents with a specific purpose in mind. Participants were
purposively sampled from Nigerian immigrant familiesresiding in Winnipeg.
According to Vogt (1999), snowball sampling is an approach in finding research
participants whereby one subject recommends another subject, who in turn refers another subject
47

and so on.It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It is called snowball sampling
because in theory once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way and
becomes larger and larger(Vogt, 1999). In applying the snowball sampling technique, the
researcher as a starting point advertised through three newcomer settlement organizations in
Winnipeg after obtaining ethical approval. Nigerian Association of Manitoba Incorporation
(NAMI), Immigrant and Refugee Community Organization of Manitoba (IRCOM), and
Newcomer Employment Education Development Services (NEEDS) were contacted to help in
the recruitment of participants for the study. These organizations advertised the study by posting
flyers around their locations. NAMI assisted with the provision of two potential families who
were interested in the study and had giving their consent to be contacted. The researcher made
arrangements with both families and they got interviewed. Every adult in each family inclusively
became a participant and is to be interviewed individually after meeting the inclusion criteria:a)
An adult who is a participant must be 18 years and above, b) must be related to the family by
birth, blood or adoption and c) Must be a Nigerian Immigrant.
In order to achieve the sample size, the two families were asked to suggest other
participants with similar characteristics as them until a meaningful saturation was reached, where
no new useful information were gathered. Responses from the interviews are recorded using a
digital audio recorder with participant’s permission, and also salient points were covered by
writing down key observation so that important details of the interviews are not missed out.
3.10 Interview Guide
Data for the study is collected through semi-structured interviews. It is an appropriate
method because it helps the researcher to explore detailed information about the perspective,
experiences and expectations of study participants and also allow the participants to provide new
48

direction to the line of investigation (Boyce and Neale, 2006). Classic ethnographers such as
Malinowski have stressed on the significance of talking to people face-to-face to get their point
of view (Burgess, 1982). A semi-structured interview in this study therefore produces a
fundamental process where knowledge about the social world of participants is constructed
through normal human interactions (Rorty, 1980). A semi-structured question guide developed
by the researcher is used to collect data from all study participants. The question guide is divided
into two parts. Part one involves a short demographic survey which asked some background
information to assist the analysis of participants’ accounts. Part two captures the socio-economic
experiences of participants prior to migrating to Canada and their post-arrival experiences. The
content of the interview ranged from participant’s perceptions about Canada’s economic
prospects, their employment pursuit in Canada and memorable experience(s), perceptions about
immigrant employment opportunities in Canada among others. The interview questions were
designed to ascertain the educational backgrounds of participants to ensure that researcher was
dealing with a similar group of immigrants.
Secondly, the questions were designed to explore their experiences in accessing the
Canadian labour market and the events that led them to opt for a career change. Thirdly, the
questions were to reveal the reasons for choosing a particular work; why and not something else?
And lastly, the questions had the objective of assessing the outcomes of their choice. In what
ways had their choice changed their lives, how has the change of career impacted their lives in
Canada? Would they still choose anything given other opportunities? Probing these issues was
very pertinent in understanding their socio-economic experiences prior to migrating to Canada
andtheir post-arrival experiences.
49

3.10.1 Developing the Interview Guide
The nature of this study necessitates inquiry that focuses more on lived experiences than
hypothetical scenarios or abstract concepts (Mason, 2002). I therefore made preparations before
meeting with an interviewee by outlining key themes and areas of interest that addressed my
principal research questions.
The advice of Bryman’s (2004) has been followed on the use of interview technique for
data collection. Of particular importance in Bryman’s methodology is developing an interview
guide based on the research questions; seeking the participant’s permission to be interviewed;
arranging a mutually agreeable time and place for the interview; the identification of possible
interview themes or subjects; deciding the mode of recording the interview (note-taking, tape-
recording or both); and avoiding double-barreled or multiple-barreled questions.
The questions were simple, logical, straight to the point and easy to read and understand.
It also included the combination of both open and closed ended questions to reduce respondent’s
fatigue (Bryman, 2012) as well as allow for clarification and/or expression of opinion by
respondents.
3.11 Data Collection Sources
Data sources, which are used extensively in different researches, are broadly of two
types- primary and secondary. The primary data are those empirical evidences, which are
collected by the researcher directly by interviewing the relevant personnel for their individual
research. This type of data are less erroneous and are of comparatively superior quality.
However, collection of primary data is a time-taking and cost-effective process. This often
induces the researchers to work with secondary data sources (Clark, 2013). These types of data
50

are indirectly obtained from different data sources and are not directly collected by the researcher
himself. This reduces the time and cost of data collection, however there remains the risk of
working with more erroneous and biased data in this method of data analysis.
The study uses both primary and secondary sources of data to examine immigrants and
their families’ economic wellbeing as part of the larger process of integration. The primary
sources included all the data that the researcher originally collects from the sample or target
population. In this study the primary sources of data came from the field mostly termed as field
information. This included answers that came from interviews with the study participants.
The secondary data on the other hand is a data collected for some purposes other than the
problem at hand (Malhotra and Birks, 2007). The secondary sources involved information
gathered from previous work in the filed which formed the bulk of the researcher’s literature
review section in chapter two. It included journals, articles, paper publications, research works
(published and unpublished), books and which guided the study to achieve its stated objectives.
3.12 Data Collection Process
Before the interviews begin, participants are provided with consent form to review and
sign.They are also assured of confidentiality and the reasons for the study, after which the semi-
structured interview was conducted. The researcher goes through every section in the consent
form with the participants and offer better explanation if required before they sign the document.
Again, an unsigned copy of the consent form is left with all participants before the interview
starts. Five (5) of the interviews took place in participants’ homes, three (3) at their work places
and two (2) at University of Manitoba campus. The interviewer (researcher) was open as well as
transparent to participants. This enabled participants to feel comfortable and relate freely with
51

the researcher. All interviews were conducted in English and those who needed further
clarification on the interview questions were given necessary support.
On average, the interview lasted between 45 minutes to 1 hour since the questions were
in two sections. All the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed by the researcher. During
the interview, the researcher took notes of all salient points made by participants that were not
captured in the question guide. After each interview, participants were appreciated for their time
and willingness to be part of the study.
In total, ten Nigerian families were interviewed between June and August, 2017.The ages
of participants ranges from 25-54, with those within categories 35-44 and 45-54 having the
highest representation. There were eight males and three females; ten of the participants were
married and one was a widow (See Table 3.1) below.
Table 3.1-Demographic and socio-economic profile of participants
Name * Age Gender
**
Marital Level of Year of Occupation
prior to
Current Duratio
n of
52

status
***
education migration migration occupation employ
ment
Alaka 35-44 M M Bachelor’s
Degree
2015 Banker Disability
Support
worker
3 years
Adebisi 25-34 F M Bachelor’s
Degree
2017 Public
servant
Disability
Support
worker
6
months
Bisola 45-54 F W Bachelor’s
Degree
2013 Teacher Disability
Support
worker
3 years
Emeka 45-54 M M Diploma 2013 Electrician Electrician 2 years
Ganiru 35-44 M M Bachelor’s
Degree
2015 Banker Student -
Moses 35-44 M M Bachelor’s
Degree
2015 Administrati
ve assistant
Customer
Experience
Associate
1 year
Oluwa 25-34 F M Bachelor’s
Degree
2015 Teacher Customer
service
Associate
1 year
Oluwa 25-34 M M Bachelor’s
Degree
2015 I.T
personnel
Disability
Support
Worker
2 years
Paul 45-54 M M Master’s
Degree
2012 Public
servant
Student -
Peter 45-54 M M Bachelor’s
Degree
2012 Accountant Educational
Assistant
1 year
Samuel 35-44 M M Master’s
Degree
2013 School clerk Security
Guard
3 years
53

Source: Fieldwork 2017; * Pseudonym:**M: Male; F: Female; ***M: Married; W: Widowed;
.
3.13 Validity and Reliability of Instruments
Both validity and reliability are essential component of any research whether quantitative
or qualitative in nature and are the two most important and fundamental characteristics of any
measurement procedure. Validity is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument
measures what is designed to measure (Neuman, 2006). A research design is said to be valid,
authentic, credible and trustworthy, if it enables the researcher to elicit the correct responses
from the sampled subjects, otherwise, it will be faulty in design and may lead to misleading
findings.
On the other hand, Blanche and Durrheim (1999) defined reliability as the dependability
of a measurement instrument, that is, the extent to which the instrument yields the same results
on repeated trials. The researcher took the following measures to ensure the interview guide was
valid and reliable. The interview questions were pre-tested to make sure everything worked
correctly. Feedback from the ‘pilot’ test helped deal with any ambiguity and confusions that
characterized the interview questions. Additionally, analysis of the data, unlike unstructured
interviews, was credible because the researcher simply grouped common responses to each item
and presented the results without making inferences or assumptions.
The findings were also credible because audio-recording of the interview process ensured
accurate data in their original form. I also used direct quotations (low level descriptors) to help
54

readers experience the participants’ world (Ary et al., 2006, p. 506). The researcher also ensured
that the right target population was identified and interviewed, i.e. Nigerian migrants residing in
Winnipeg-Manitoba. Also, both published academic and professional journal articles used for the
study were credible.
3.14 Data Analysis
Data from in-depth interviews was captured during the discussions and processed
manually based on recurrent themes and patterns. The data was coded over a number of times to
identify significant themes for the study. Analysis of the qualitative data focused on categorizing
the data with simple codes in order to uncover common themes in the participants’ answers. The
analysis proceeded from preset categories which the researcher wanted to know and went on to
identify other themes which emerged from the narratives of the participants.Altride-Stirling’s
(2001) thematic network approach is used to extract themes from the data for analysis. Applying
thematic networks is basically a technique for organizing a thematic analysis of a qualitative data
(Altride-Stirling, 2001).
Themes are explained as patterns across data sets that are essential to the description of
the phenomenon been studied or associated to a specific research question (Braun & Clarke,
2006). Thematic networks thus aim to explore the understanding of an idea and seek to extract
the relevant themes in a text at different levels for analysis (Altride-Stirling, 2001). Altride-
Stirling presents three classes of themes required in the analysis process:
Basic theme: This refers to the first and most basic theme derived from the recorded data. It
represents the characteristic of the data in the initial stages of the analysis and presents very little
about the data sets. In order for the basic theme to make sense to the readership, it needs to be
55

read within the context of other similar basic themes which come together to form an organizing
theme.
Organizing theme: The organizing theme group main ideas proposed by several basic themes,
and identify the main assumptions underlying these broader themes that are significant in the text
as a whole. This involves sorting the different codes from the basic themes to form one potential
theme rather than just the codes in the initial step.
Global theme: These are groups of organizing themes combined to form a global theme to
present an argument, or position about a given issue been studied. A global theme conveys to the
readership what the text as a whole is about through the presentation of thematic networks within
the context of a particular analysis.
56

Figure1. Structure of a thematic network. Note: Adapted from “Thematic networks: an analytical tool for qualitative
research” by Attride-Stirling, J., 2001, Qualitative Research 1(3): 385-405.
In analyzing an interview question such as “why did you migrate to Canada”, basic themes (also
referred as codes) that emerge from the data set for instance, for employment, job satisfaction,
opportunity for career advancement, desire for higher wages or salaries and similar codes are
grouped under one common organizing theme such as economic consideration for migrating to
Canada. Subsequently, all the organizing themes come together to form a Global theme, for
example reasons for migration intention, which is used to form a thematic network for the
analysis.
57

Finally, the descriptive statistics of the respondents as well as each of the codes are described
whereby sample quotes from the transcripts were made available in the analysis. The qualitative
data and the responses have been coded and organized with the help of NVivo 11.
3.15 Ethical considerations
Respecting the rights of research participants is an important step recognized by the
research community (Corti, Day & Backhouse, 2000). The researcher explained fully and
meaningfully about the nature of the study, participants’ role, identity of researcher, relevance of
the study and how the information obtained will be disseminated and used. Participants were
made aware of their rights to participate or refuse to answer any question without penalty. They
were also assured of their personal information not to be shared with anyone without their
knowledge and permission. In order to protect the identity and anonymity of participants, pseudo
names are used in all records and notes, including tape recordings.
In summary, rights, anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents were respected in
all phases of the study. Informed verbal consent with respondents was taken before data
collection. The purpose of the study; issues of anonymity and confidentiality; voluntary
participation and freedom to discontinue the interview at any stage; and absence of any known
risk or benefit for participating in the study was explained beforehand. To preserve anonymity,
all findings are presented without ascribing names or identifiable personal description.
3.16 Research Challenges and Limitations
The limitations of this study are essentially those inherent in any qualitative research.
Firstly, critics of the case study approach argue that generalizing the findings of such studies is
difficult and unreliable because of their limited coverage (Cohen et al, 2007). According to Stake
58

(2000), a case study lends itself to ‘naturalistic generalization‘, not ‘scientific generalization‘, as
a survey does. Nevertheless, because the study was a typical one, there was the possibility for
readers to transfer the outcomes to their individual contexts, if they identified commonalities
between their contexts and that of this particular study.
The second challenge of this research has to do with its limitation to only Winnipeg; this
geographic location may influence the study’s results. The small sample, though descriptive,
limits the extent to which participants can be representative and findings generalized. The
relatively defined sample might not be large enough to generalize the results to other immigrants
of Canada or to other countries in the world more generally.
Another challenge the research faced was during the data collection as most of the
interviewees were constrained by time and their busywork schedule. Eventually when the
researcher was able to locate participants who matched the sample, their busy schedules made it
incredibly difficult to pin them down. On several occasions the researcher had gone to some
participants’ homes after an appointment to find they had completely forgotten about the
interview and were not home. On a number of times appointments had to be cancelled or
rescheduled due to unforeseen circumstances. This situation extended the duration allocated for
the collection of the interview data.
3.17 Conclusion
It is well documented that when migration is regulated, it can serve as a potential for
improving the efficiency and wellbeing of the international economic system and improve on
international inequalities (Hatton and Williamson, 2005). This chapter described the
methodology used for this study. In this chapter, the study employed qualitative design with
emphasis on case study strategy which is proven to be the most effective strategy of
59

understanding personal experiences of a phenomenon. The researcher first purposively selected
two Nigerian immigrant families who formed part of the target population and the main unit of
analysis. Snowball sampling technique was used to include eight more study participants who
were suggested by the initial participants. The researcher used a semi-structured interview guide
to collect all data; participants were engaged in face-to-face interviews in their convenient times
and places. The interview responses were qualitatively analyzed and further processed manually
based on recurrent themes and patterns. The researcher employed Altride-Stirling’s (2001)
thematic network approach to qualitative analyze the data.
Some limitations were encountered during the data collection stage and with the sample
size. However, it is unlikely that these limitations seriously affected the conclusions of the study
because the researcher systematically addressed all the challenges. With the above discussed
research methodological framework, the concerned research is conducted and the following
section shows the detailed qualitative analysis of the data collected with the help of the in depth
interviews conducted as mentioned above. The thematic analysis of the collected data is
discussed in the section.
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