Sociology in Health Care: Implications of Conflict and Feminist Theories on the Australian Health Care System

This essay discusses the implications of conflict and feminist theories on the Australian health care system. It highlights the importance of sociology subject to nurses and funding for the Australian healthcare system. It also explores the hierarchy implications to nurses and the power in the Australian healthcare system.

Sociology in health care
SOCIOLOGY IN HEALTH CARE
Institution-affiliated
Student name
Date

Sociology in health care
Introduction
Sociology is the study of human groups, their behaviours, structure, and growth in the
society. Sociology in healthcare focuses on a great number of sociological concepts that spread
through the health care system. It discusses the socioeconomic status such as class variation in
the society(Luhmann, Baecker&Gilgen, 2013). The lesser the variation in social class
experiences the better the health outcomes in society. In sociology, the quantitative and the
qualitative approaches play a demanding role in the health system(Luhmann, Baecker&Gilgen,
2013). The social world is also subjected to objective and subjective reality(Dunphy, 2014). The
importance of social and behavioural factors in a sociological approach to health illness is
central. The role of sociology in health remains in evaluating those components of society
affecting health at a larger level(Cohn, 2014). Its evaluation demonstrates why there are
inequalities in the health sector and what sustains them(Luhmann, Baecker&Gilgen, 2013). It
further reveals the mechanisms to help in minimizing the inequalities. Hence its main role is to
change and improve the health system. The essay will discuss two sociological theories, conflict
and feminism theory and their implications on the Australian health care system. It will also
focus on hierarchy and power and how the theories differ from the biomedical model.
Importance of sociology subject to nurses
Nurses go through a lot of human interactions(Denny, Earle &Hewison, 2016). This way
they encounter different behaviours in people and therefore, learning sociology as a subject is
important. It helps one become successful in nursing and be able to provide care to different
patients and genuinely perform correct diagnoses. This is because they understand their different

Sociology in health care
behaviours and the way they react. It also gives them an understanding of their responsibility
socially as they not only treat the illness but improve the quality of life to patients(Giger, 2016).
Funding for the Australian healthcare system
Being one of the best in the world provides quality care which is safe and affordable.
When it comes to the running of the system federal, state and territory governments share the
responsibilities(Levinson et al., 2014)(Mason, 2013). The Australian federal government is
responsible for; the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS),
funding hospitals operated by state and territories, supporting the medical research sector with
funding, coordinating the national response to emergencies, funding programs for Aboriginals
and Torres Strait Islanders health, funding primary level mental health services, subsidizing and
regulating aged care services and funding a range of population health programs and campaigns.
State and territories manage and jointly fund public hospitals, public dental clinics, foods safety
and handling regulation, ambulance services, community health services, community health
services, delivering preventive services such as breast cancer screening and immunisation
programs and monitoring health premises(Levinson et al., 2014).
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx developed the theory. It argues that a society is a complicated system striving
for competition and not to be at equilibrium(Luhmann, Baecker&Gilgen, 2013). That is, a
society is made of people who are competing for limited resources. The resources here can be
sexual partners, money, leisure, and luxuries(Glaser & Strauss, 2017). There is also a
competition for organisations and social structures such as government and religion depicts the
competition for resources in their deep-rooted inequalities in the field of economics, healthcare,

Sociology in health care
and education(Caselli& Coleman, 2013). Some people and other organizations have more
resources which they use to influence and maintain their positions of power in the society while
suppressing the poor and powerless.
This theory counters the structural-functionalist theory which argues that the society is at
equilibrium regarding stability while forgoing the social changes that occur(Stephan & Stephan,
2013). For conflict theory, the society is ever fighting for the limited resources. Hence it’s ideal
for explaining the social changes and the conflict that exists between classes(Caselli& Coleman,
2013). The classes here represent those members in the society that have more wealth and means
and the working class who are considered as poor.
Assumptions
In all social relationships, there is a competition over scarce resources. All human
relationships competition is evident rather than a consensus.
Biases in power and the rewards are bred into the social structures. Those that benefit
from those social structures always strive to ensure that it is maintained(Luhmann,
Baecker&Gilgen, 2013).
The change that occurs is as a result of conflict between the interests of the competitors
rather than adaptation. The change is usually hasty in changing other than being metamorphic.
Implications on the Australian health system
The transfer of some of the hospitals from the public to the private sector running makes
it no different from other businesses. Success is through measures like capital resources, good
organization of human resources, effective marketing, and staff(Alonso, Clifton &Díaz-Fuentes,

Sociology in health care
2016). The privatization of hospitals in Australia saw self-interest replace the good work, service
and professionalism to the community. The idea of profit threatens the professionalism and the
quality of service. Humanitarian services create most conflict. Allowing monopoly to a drug
company where it charges whatever money it can even through force to someone makes little or
no sense(Gleeson, Moir&Lopert, 2015). This makes them mislead nurses and the public about its
safety and effectiveness the drug. Privatization of public hospitals is risking the nurses’
professional duties which have a great negative impact on the healthcare. Nurse- to- patient ratio
is half the number required(Alonso, Clifton &Díaz-Fuentes, 2016). This means that even
employment to them is not based on merit in these hospitals. For example, a case of a nurse
treating a patient using scripts on paper. No policies or protocols procedures observed. The risk
and fear of losing a job make them also put up with whatever happens since the employer is
private.
Medical dominance creates structural barriers between nurses and doctors. Doctors are
highly satisfied with more control over procedures and delivery in the healthcare(Chong,
Aslani& Chen, 2013). Their profession is considered more powerful and of higher status by the
public than nursing. This makes nurses dissatisfied with their professional status concerning their
working environment(Schadewaldt, McInnes, Hiller, & Gardner, 2016).
Conflict theory on hierarchy
There are a set of ideas that approves the status quo in the society. According to Marx,
hierarchy refers to the haves, and the have- not. The powerful in the society use their position to
stay at the top in the society at the expense of oppressing the poor(Anthias, 2013). They also
influence other institution, law, and the media to maintain the class structure. They suppress any

Sociology in health care
chance that the poor can challenge it by trying to approve the orders that exist. Their main aim is
to abhor the poor from attaining the class awareness of their abuse and the real reasons for it
hence suffer false awareness(Lowe, Plummer & Boyd, 2013). Either it is important in that it
helps the poor realize that they can get themselves out of poverty if they work hard enough. The
implication is that if people remain poor, they are not working hard enough to get themselves out
of poverty or have other reasons keeping them in poverty state(Anthias, 2013).
Hierarchy in the Australian healthcare system
When it comes to placing of hospital staffs, it follows a strict hierarchical structure. It
consists of senior medical doctors, visiting medical officers, registrars, principal house officer,
resident medical officers, senior house officer, junior house officer and intern. Senior medical
officers are the topmost in the structure and have subdivisions of general practitioners, staff
specialists and career hospital doctors. Visiting medical officers consult at private or public
hospitals on a part-time basis. The registrars are the doctor's accepted the prior nomination in
college with a clinical speciality. Principle house officers are those currently in their fourth year
of post-graduation studies. They are medical practitioners. Resident medical officers consist of
senior house officer who are in their third year of post-graduation, junior house officers who are
in their second year of post- graduation studies and an intern who is in the first year of post-
graduation and don’t have a lot of responsibilities regarding treatment of patients(Morrow,
Gustavson, & Jones, 2016).
Hierarchy implications to nurses
Nurses are always performing orders and directions from physicians and hospital
management(Chong, Aslani& Chen, 2013). Many times also nurses step back to let medical

Sociology in health care
interns perform various tasks in which they are also experts. Patients are also admitted in
hospitals under surgeons or physician’s name, yet the maintenance and safety of the patient are
solely left to the nurses. Nurses remain invisible shadows when it comes to healthcare
hierarchy(Rodwell, Demir, & Flower, 2013). Nurses in Australia are expected to be in uniform
always while doctors and medical students attend to patients wearing anything. This
dehumanizes the nurse and supports inequality in the healthcare hierarchy(Schadewaldt,
McInnes, Hiller, & Gardner, 2016).
Conflict theory and power
The theory highlights that power is settled in the hands of a few wealthy people and
some organizations in the democratic society. They use it to influence the government of the day
by shaping its decisions to benefit their interests(Luhmann, Baecker&Gilgen, 2013). Members in
power see each other socially and also serve together in organizations, corporations, and other
bodies. This control helps maintain their influence. Either the government does not always take
the side of the ruling, but at times it opposes them. The theory helps ensure the legitimacy.
Power in the Australian healthcare system
The structure of the Australian health system poses challenges in achieving the
collaborative delivery of services. There is a lack of integration in various initiatives by the two
levels of government. The health professionals in the primary health sector work in private and
public sector under different funding. Health professionals in private practice get their fund on a
fee- for- service basis while those in the public sector through block funding. Hence
collaboration becomes difficult due to few opportunities for personal relationships through
communication.

Sociology in health care
How conflict theory differs with the biomedical model
Biomedical health terms health as biological and norm and terms the body as a machine where
the ill health associated with it is as a result of dysfunction(Glaser & Strauss, 2017). It also states
that diseases emanate from bacteria, viruses, genetics, and trauma(Krieger, 2014). To identify ill
health, diagnosis of signs and symptoms has to be carried out. Their knowledge is based on facts
which make biomedical knowledge superior to other sciences(Baum & Fisher, 2014). It also
notes that individuals play no part in restoring the body to health. There is also no consideration
of social factor contributing to ill health.
The theory points out the inequality in the quality of health and health care services. The
inequalities are along social class, gender, race, and ethnicity. People coming from
disadvantaged social backgrounds are more likely to fall sick and after that since the healthcare
is inadequate to make it impossible for them to recover. This is as a result of disparities in the
healthcare(Krieger, 2014). It also says that physicians increase their incomes by controlling the
medical practice and seeing social problems as medical problems.
Feminist theory
Earlier on women were ignored and silenced in by the scientific communities of their
time due to sexism, racism, and heterosexism(Ritzer&Stepnisky, 2017). Feminist scholars are
continuing to expand their scientific knowledge across all disciplines and countering the initial
assumptions(Ritzer&Stepnisky, 2017). Their main aim is to have a just social world. The theory
has three foundational ideas; scientific practice is subjective, the personal is political, and
everything is more than one thing(Stephan & Stephan, 2013).

Sociology in health care
In subjective scientific practice, feminist argue that as long as people are the ones doing
research, it will be subjective to open debate at some level(Glaser & Strauss, 2017). In the
personal is political, they argue that to change the oppression systems requires to view how
people feel, think, and act in all manner of life which will affect the social and the natural world
experience(Cho, Crenshaw & McCall, 2013). Everything is more than one thing; it argues that
social and natural cannot only be understood by controlling the various parts of social and
natural experience but rather attend to the whole structure, system, and entity about others of the
same in the world and at the same time.
In sociology, it is a conflict theory with its perspectives focusing on gender and relation
to power, all at the level of interaction and flexibility in a social structure. This includes race,
sexual orientation, nationality, and economic status(Dill &Zinn, 2016).
Its assumptions are; gender theory involves politics of inequality, men and women think
differently in nature, societies are organized by gender principle, and gender is termed as a social
construction.
Its assumptions are; gender theory involves politics of inequality, men and women think
differently in nature, societies are organized by gender principle, and gender is termed as a social
construction(Dill &Zinn, 2016).
Feminist theory on hierarchy
Women rarely go up to the top of social hierarchies due to bumping on unstated
boundaries which keep them from achieving the higher positions of power. Even in legislative
areas, women tend to hold lesser positions at the bottom(Stephan & Stephan, 2013). They tend to

Sociology in health care
maintain their secondary status in the society. Hierarchy helps people view other humans as
equals which exist on a scale(Stephan & Stephan, 2013).
Hierarchy implications on nurses in Australian healthcare
Most nurses in the healthcare are women with 89%. However, they occupy a less
privileged position in the healthcare. They also earn less and fail to further their studies. The
male nurses go contrary to all these and hence occupy higher management positions. They also
speak less compared to men. Women bullying each other express their frustration on the limited
access to the patriarchy due to sexism (Bismark et al., 2015).
Feminist and power
The view of power by the feminist is simple. They believe that it is unequally and
unjustly directed to men in the society(Stanley, 2013). This has resulted in discrimination of
women, where men use it to oppress women and control their lives. Feminist divide the power
men have over women into public and private sphere(Cho Crenshaw & McCall, 2013). They
note in the public sphere which involves politics, and workplace power is becoming equal. In the
private sphere, inequalities are still there. This is regarding the family matters where women are
at the core, and this has contributed in affecting their power publicly. The theory has helped
women in understanding power and how to tackle gender inequalities(Stanley, 2013).
Power implications for nurses in Australian healthcare
Gender perceptions by the society have silenced women nurses who are the majority in
the profession. They don’t have great influence on policymaking and management decisions
(Bismark et al., 2015).

Sociology in health care
How feminist theory differs from the biomedical model
The theory highlights that in the field of medicine, the powerful professional areas in it are
dominated by men(Stanley, 2013). It highlights further that health policies are also made by a
parliament that is male-dominated(Harris et al., 2016). As a result of this, doctors may view
women as neurotic and unbalanced emotionally and point their social problems to the difference
in biology compared to that of men(Krieger, 2014). The doctors also point out that key elements
in a woman's life are motherhood and maternal instincts. Any denial of the instincts causes ill
health or depression(Baum & Fisher, 2014).
Impacts of hierarchy and power on health practitioner
Interns and medical students are at the lowest level in the hierarchy when it comes to
medical hierarchy(Schön, 2017). They depend on other clinicians for learning and
instructions(Lowe, Plummer & Boyd, 2013). For them to go higher in the hierarchy, the report
from their supervisors should be favourable regarding their professional development, key
competencies, and their performance(Cohn, 2014). Aware of this, they try to maintain good
relations with their supervisors at the expense of their priorities in health care(Schön, 2017).
Disclosing mistakes or trying to correct the supervisor may have adverse effects to the intern or
student(Krieger, 2014). That is the report can be bad, which will reduce the chances of being
employed or slim chances for training programs.
When it comes to power, those up in the ladder have more power compared to the interns
and students (Harris et al., 2016). This inequality in power makes them develop fear and keep
silent to the matters requiring them to open up. Trying to highlight a problem or contradicting the
decisions made by seniors can cause trouble.

Sociology in health care
Conclusion
Sociology enables people to see the world we live in a socially built. This makes people
interact regardless of their race, social status, economic status, families and take charge of their
lives. Health sociology focuses on how social life affects the mortality rate and morbidity. When
it comes to health and illnesses, sociologists attribute to the socioeconomic status of a person,
ethnicity and other cultural factors. Sociology provides a mindset of understanding different
cultural backgrounds, behaviour and their norms. Health personnel in health care should promote
health and welfare equally. Social resources in the society should also be fairly distributed
without discrimination to ensure equal access by all the members of the society. This will reduce
the margin between the poor and the rich and foster equal rights to all its citizens. Women should
also participate fully in all aspects of the society from economic, reproductive, sexual, voting
rights and ownership of properties. The society is also in a vicious cycle of conflicts from
education, power, gender, colour, religion, and nationality.

Sociology in health care
References
Alonso, J. M., Clifton, J., &Díaz-Fuentes, D. (2016). Public-private partnerships for hospitals:
Does privatization affect employment?. Journal of Strategic Contracting and Negotiation, 2(4),
313-325.
Aneshensel, C. S., Phelan, J. C., &Bierman, A. (2013). The sociology of mental health:
Surveying the field. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 1-19).Springer,
Dordrecht.
Anthias, F. (2013). Hierarchies of social location, class and intersectionality: Towards a
translocational frame. International Sociology, 28(1), 121-138.
Barrow, M., McKimm, J., Gasquoine, S., & Rowe, D. (2015). Collaborating in healthcare
delivery: exploring conceptual differences at the “bedside”. Journal of Interprofessional
Care, 29(2), 119-124.
Baum, F., & Fisher, M. (2014). Why behavioural health promotion endures despite its failure to
reduce health inequities. Sociology of health & illness, 36(2), 213-225.
Bismark, M., Morris, J., Thomas, L., Loh, E., Phelps, G., & Dickinson, H. (2015). Reasons and
remedies for under-representation of women in medical leadership roles: a qualitative study from
Australia. BMJ Open, 5(11), e009384.
Caselli, F., & Coleman, W. J. (2013).On the theory of ethnic conflict. Journal of the European
Economic Association, 11(suppl_1), 161-192.
Cohn, S. (2014). From health behaviours to health practices: an introduction. Sociology of health
& illness, 36(2), 157-162.

Sociology in health care
Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies:
Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 785-
810.
Chong, W. W., Aslani, P., & Chen, T. F. (2013).Shared decision-making and interprofessional
collaboration in mental health care: a qualitative study exploring perceptions of barriers and
facilitators. Journal of interprofessional care, 27(5), 373-379.
Denny, E., Earle, S., &Hewison, A. (Eds.). (2016). Sociology for nurses.John Wiley & Sons.
Dill, B. T., &Zinn, M. B. (2016).Theorising difference from multiracial feminism. In Race,
Gender and Class (pp. 76-82). Routledge.
Dunphy, J. L. (2014). Healthcare professionals' perspectives on environmental
sustainability. Nursing Ethics, 21(4), 414-425.
Giger, J. N. (2016). Transcultural Nursing-E-Book: Assessment and Intervention. Elsevier
Health Sciences.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (2017). Discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research. Routledge.
Gleeson, D. H., Moir, H., &Lopert, R. (2015). Costs to Australian taxpayers of pharmaceutical
monopolies and proposals to extend them in the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement. The
Medical Journal of Australia, 202(6), 306-308.
Harris, M. F., Advocate, J., Crabtree, B. F., Levesque, J. F., Miller, W. L., Gunn, J. M., ...&
Russell, G. M. (2016). Interprofessional teamwork innovations for primary health care practices

Sociology in health care
and practitioners: evidence from a comparison of reform in three countries. Journal of
multidisciplinary health care, 9, 35.
Krieger, N. (2014). Got Theory? On the 21 st c. CE Rise of Explicit use of Epidemiologic
Theories of Disease Distribution: A Review and Ecosocial Analysis. Current Epidemiology
Reports, 1(1), 45-56.
Levinson, W., Kallewaard, M., Bhatia, R. S., Wolfson, D., Shortt, S., & Kerr, E. A. (2014).
‘Choosing Wisely’: a growing international campaign. BMJ QualSaf, BMJ's-2014.
Lowe, G., Plummer, V., & Boyd, L. (2013).Nurse practitioner roles in Australian health care
settings. Nursing Management, 20(2).
Luhmann, N., Baecker, D., &Gilgen, P. (2013). Introduction to systems theory. Cambridge:
Polity.
Mason, J. (2013). Review of Australian government health workforce programs.
Morrow, K. J., Gustavson, A. M., & Jones, J. (2016).Speaking up behaviours (safety voices) of
healthcare workers: A meta-synthesis of qualitative research studies. International Journal of
nursing studies, 64, 42-51.
Ritzer, G., &Stepnisky, J. (2017). Modern sociological theory.SAGE Publications.
Rodwell, J., Demir, D., & Flower, R. L. (2013). The oppressive nature of work in healthcare:
predictors of aggression against nurses and administrative staff. Journal of Nursing
Management, 21(6), 888-897.

Sociology in health care
Schadewaldt, V., McInnes, E., Hiller, J. E., & Gardner, A. (2016).Experiences of nurse
practitioners and medical practitioners working in collaborative practice models in primary
health care in Australia–a multiple case study using mixed methods. BMC family practice, 17(1),
99.
Schön, D. A. (2017). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Routledge.
Stanley, L. (2013). Feminist praxis (RLE feminist theory): Research, theory and epistemology in
feminist sociology. Routledge.
Stephan, C. W., & Stephan, W. S. (2013).An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In Reducing
prejudice and discrimination(pp. 33-56). Psychology Press.