Structural Analysis and Foundation Systems for Tall Buildings

This report discusses the structural analysis and foundation systems applicable to tall building construction. It covers topics such as stress and strain, loads, structural properties, and demolition. It also explores foundation systems such as pile foundations, excavation techniques, ground stabilization techniques, and common structural systems, materials, and construction methods used for the construction of tall buildings.

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Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................4
Methodology....................................................................................................................................4
Stress and Strain...........................................................................................................................6
Strain............................................................................................................................................6
Structural Principles.........................................................................................................................6
Loads............................................................................................................................................7
Structural Properties.....................................................................................................................8
Section Properties of Materials................................................................................................8
Structural Members......................................................................................................................8
Demolition...................................................................................................................................9
1. Foundation systems applicable to tall building construction.................................................10
Pile foundations..........................................................................................................................10
2 Major excavation techniques, ground stabilization techniques and ground Dewatering
techniques to basement construction of a tall building..................................................................13
Excavation Techniques..............................................................................................................13
Vertical Excavation................................................................................................................14
Hybrid Excavation..................................................................................................................14
Ground Stabilization Techniques...............................................................................................14
Mechanical Stabilization........................................................................................................14
Chemical Stabilization...........................................................................................................14
Ground Dewatering Techniques to Basement Construction......................................................15
2. Common structural systems, materials, construction methods and plant and machinery used
for the construction of tall buildings..............................................................................................15
Common Structural Systems......................................................................................................15
Enclosure System...................................................................................................................16
Life Safety Systems................................................................................................................16
Materials for Construction of Tall Buildings.............................................................................16
Construction Methods................................................................................................................16
Slip form.................................................................................................................................17
Tunnel Form...........................................................................................................................17

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Column system formwork......................................................................................................17
Plant and Machinery used in Construction of Tall Buildings....................................................17
Conclusion and Recommendation.................................................................................................18
Critical Reflection..........................................................................................................................18
References......................................................................................................................................21
Introduction

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The stability of tall buildings is an important factors during construction hence the need
for structural analysis. Structure help maintain the shape and form of tall buildings. There are
forces which provide support to the tall buildings and are indicated by arrows called vectors. The
structures also have certain principles which aid in the maintenance of stability. The structure
principles include, load, structural properties, load and structural members. There are also
foundation systems which are applicable to the tall buildings during construction and they
include, pile foundation. During the construction of tall buildings, there are a number of
excavation techniques such as the hybrid and vertical techniques. Additionally, there are
common structural systems, materials, construction methods and plant and machinery used for
the construction of tall buildings and the above as discussed in the paper below.
Methodology
This paper aims at exploring the structural analysis of the tall buildings. Furthermore, it
also evaluates the foundation systems applicable to tall building construction such as pile
foundations.Also,the major excavation techniques such as hybrid technique, ground stabilization
techniques and ground Dewatering techniques to basement construction of a tall building have
also been discussed in the paper.Also,it highlights the common structural systems, materials,
construction methods and plant and machinery such as cranes, lifts and used for the construction
of tall buildings and concrete pump.
Learning Outcome 1: Structural Analysis of Tall Buildings
The term structure is anything which is usually built using a variety of parts that are
interrelated, and this is done with a fixed place on the ground. Such structures helps in the
maintenance of form and shape of a building, and certain subjected forces often aid this. The
components, stability, and strength of a structure must be taken into account during the
construction of a tall building. There are certain forces which help to maintain stability and

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strength of a building (Cowcher 2015 p.89). Arrows called vectors often represent such forces.
The effects of the forces acting on the structure and any other component are usually estimated
through a structural analysis. There are several features of the forces which act on the structure
and component during the construction of a tall building. Such properties include a position
which is the position under which the forces act on. The other property is the magnitude which is
the size of force working on the structure. Lastly, there is the direction feature of forces which is
the direction upon which the force is acting on. The forces can be shown in the diagram as
shown below;
Figure showing force representation in a tall building (Cowcher 2015 p.89)
Concurrent Forces in Tall Buildings
These are the forces whose actions are essential in the tall building and tends to meet at a
convergent point. This is mainly indicated as shown in the below figure
Figure showing the illustration of Concurrent Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134).
Non Concurrent Forces
These are the forces whose actions are fundamental in the tall building and tends to divergent point.
The illustration mainly represented as shown in the below figure

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Figure showing the illustration of Non- Concurrent Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134)
Equilibrium of Forces
These are forces whose actions and reaction impacts tends to balance one another in the structure.
The effects and impacts on tall buildings is not only essential but also important. Thus, the figure below
illustrates their actions
Figure showing the illustration of equilibrium Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134)
Shear, Tension and Compression Forces
The three forces are essential and fundamental in the structural designing of the tall buildings and
their effects mainly indicated as shown in the diagrams below.

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Figure showing the illustration of shear Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134)
Moment of Forces
It is defined as the ability of the makeable forces to move as well as roate the body marked as
rigid with the axis. The effects is termed as the turning effects of forces and have great impacts on the
tall buildings and structures (Tsiavos 2017 p.134).
Figure showing the illustration of moment Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134)
Hydrostatic
The effects and impacts of these forces mainly indicated as per the illustration below in the tall
buildings

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Figure showing the illustration of hydrostatic Forces in Tall Buildings (Tsiavos 2017 p.134)
Structural Principles
The stability and strength of a building are often taken into consideration in any design
building. Such properties are usually estimated by finding the impacts of the forces of acting
upon any of the structures of the building under construction. The following diagrams illustrate
the overall effects of the forces in the building system.

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Figure showing the effect of structural loads (Wang et al. 2015 p.378)
According to Tsiavos (2017) primary structural principles are components such as the floor,
walls, and roof should remain stationery. Such a situation however only happens as a result of
the equilibrium of forces, that forces which are equal and opposite. It is therefore concluded that
a critical principle of structures is that the disownment of the structures to maintain an
equilibrium state. Such a state often helps in the resistance of external loads which prevents any
movement.
Loads
The other principle is that the structure must have the ability to withstand integrated
forces which could be applied to them in the event of construction of the tall buildings. However,
such a capability is based on the geological relevant to the structure. For instances, in regions
with heavy rains and strong winds, the structures must be strong enough to withstand such forces
generated by the phenomenon (Maheshwari 2016 p.33). There are a variety of loads which a
particular structure should withstand during the construction. The loads include environmental
loads such as settlement, earthquake, snow, and wind. The other load is live loads which include
traffic, occupants, and furniture. Another type of load is the dead load such as the structural
elements and fixtures. A structure's effectiveness entirely depends on the mechanical properties
of materials which are used in the construction, and this constitutes another vital principle of
structures (Heysami 2015 p.1010).
Section Properties of Materials

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The section properties of materials are usually the mathematical properties of the shapes
of the structures. Such features are of significance in the structural design and analysis. The
section properties are vital during the support of the loads (Qamaruddin 2016 p.900). The
properties include a radius of gyration, section modulus, the second moment of inertia and center
of the area (Kanwal 2016 p.356).
Structural Members
The structural members are often the primary load carrying elements of any particular
building. A thirty percent of the construction cost forms part of a building structure and good
building designs must be cost-efficient (Gaidhankar et al. 2016 p.700).
Concrete slabs: Used as roof systems and roofs
Retaining walls: Provides support to soil especially where a sloping site needs excavation
Roof trusses: Frames which are load carrying and are built of connected shapes which are
triangular
Beams: They transfer loads to support
Columns: They are vertical members involved in the transfer of compressive loads to the ground
Footings: Such members transfer load to foundations from the structure.
Demolition
The demolition of any existing structure must be done in accordance with the planning
and legislative requirements. The safe work practices are of significance during the demolition
process (Kanwal 2016 p.356).
Demolition Permit

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Before commencement of demolition, a demolition permit must be made available. After
the provision of all the documentation by the demolisher of the builder, the demolition process
could, and the building surveyor does this.
Safe work practices
All the demolitions are to be done based on the Australian codes of practices and
standards. Such include, code of practice for the safe removal of asbestos, code of practice-
Demolition 1992 and AS 2601-demolition structures (Heysami 2015 p.1010).
Foundation systems applicable to tall building construction – Learning Outcome
2
There are two types of foundation systems used during the construction of buildings.
However, system of foundations often used in the construction of tall buildings is the deep
foundations. Conversely, there is variety of deep foundation system which is often used during
the construction of the tall buildings and such include;
Pile foundations
A pile is generally defined as a long cylinder made of a strong material which may
include concrete. The pile is usually pushed on the ground to provide support for the structures
of the building (Ghandil et al. 2016 p.150). The pile foundation system is considered to be more
effective when compared to the spread footings, and this is due to its ability to take higher loads.
There are two types of pile foundations, and every particular has its way of operation. They
include;

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End Bearing Piles
At the end bearing piles, the bottom part of the pile often lies on a strong rock or soil. The
strong rock or soil usually provides support for the load of the tall building, and it is transferred
via the pile. The pile can, therefore, be considered to be a column (Poulos, 2016, p.10). The end
bearing piles works on the principle that the lowest end of the pile lies in between the strong and
weak layer and this enables the load to bypass the weak layer and gets transmitted onto the
strong layer of rock (Foster et al. 2016 p.12).
Figure showing end bearing piles (Foster et al. 2016 p.12)
Friction Piles
The force of friction aids the friction piles by transfer of the load of the tall building to
the soil across the full height of the pile and this. It, therefore, means that the pile is involved in
the transfer of the forces to the soil. The amount of load supported by the friction pile is directly

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proportional to its length.
Figure showing the friction pile (Allen et al. 2017 p.678)
Individual Footings
The individual footings are a very simple type of foundation system often used during the
construction of tall buildings. Under the system of foundation, the load of the tall building has to
be carried by the columns, and every particular column has its footing (Kibert 2016 p.500). The
size of the footing is estimated by dividing the total load on the column by the safe bearing
capacity of the soil. A plinth beam, which is a horizontal beam, is usually used to connect the
individual footings. Such a beam is built below the ground or on the ground (Taranath 2016
p.709).

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Figures showing individual footings (Poirier et al. 2016 p.378)
Major excavation techniques, ground stabilization techniques and ground Dewatering
techniques to basement construction of a tall building – Learning Outcome
Excavation Techniques
There are a variety of techniques of excavation used during the construction of a tall
building and such include the following;
Vertical Excavation
The vertical excavation is the most common technique used in the construction industry
to build tall buildings. It is usually used especially when constructing tall buildings with limited
space and access to the site. Vertical excavations help to provide stability to support the
structure. Additionally, the vertical excavation helps in prevention of soil shifting by use of waler
beams and sheeting (Li 2015 p.1).
Hybrid Excavation
The hybrid excavation technique applies both the vertical and horizontal techniques. It is
primarily used for the construction of tall buildings which require extensive excavation. The
hybrid excavation helps to ensure that the walls of the building are stable to prevent any form of
collapse (Wang et al. 2015 p.380).

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Ground Stabilization Techniques
Stabilization is a process which entails the mixing and blending of materials with soil
with the intent of improving the soil properties. The stabilization methods used during the
construction of tall buildings are categorized into two that is chemical stabilization and
mechanical stabilization techniques (Xiao-nan et al. 2015 p.9).
Mechanical Stabilization
The ground stabilization under the mechanical technique involves the alteration of the
physical nature of ground particles, and this is done by compaction or vibration.
Chemical Stabilization
The ground stabilization entirely depends on the chemical reactions between the soil
minerals and stabilizer. The stabilization under this technique is done on the soft soils with the
intent of attaining the desired engineering properties (Chew 2017 p.34).
Ground Dewatering Techniques to Basement Construction
The groundwater can be a huge problem during the excavation for the basement
construction, and therefore there are techniques usually employed to help in the dewatering
process. Dewatering is a process which involves the control of groundwater through pumping to,
and this is in the vicinity of excavation. The technique usually used for ground dewatering to
basement construction of a tall building is the sump pumping (Ren et al. 2016 p.394). During the
sump pumping, the groundwater is often allowed to flow into the excavation and later collected
in a sump. Once the groundwater has been collected, it is pumped by robust solids handling
pumps. The sump pumping technique is considered as the most effective technique during the
basement construction of the tall buildings, and however, when seeped into an excavation, it
results to the creation of certain risks especially those of instability (BROMS 2017 p.200). The
stability of the excavation side slopes and the basement of a constructed tall building are

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maintained by lowering the groundwater levels just before the excavation, and the process is
known as the pre-drainage. There are a variety of pre-drainage techniques which may be
employed to enhance the stability of a tall building. Such include the horizontal wells, vacuum
wells, educators, deep wells and well points (Spence and Kultermann 2016 p.67).
1. Common structural systems, materials, construction methods and plant and
machinery used for the construction of tall buildings – Learning Outcome 6
Common Structural Systems
The foundations of tall buildings are often supported by very heavy loads. However, there are
certain structural systems which aid in the provision of stability to the building. Such are
classified into various types that are the enclosure system and life safety system.
Enclosure System
The enclosure system is used in tall buildings with curtain walls just like those of the low
buildings. The presence of the effects of vortex shedding and wind pressure usually results in the
enclosed surfaces on the tall buildings. Another critical concern in the enclosure system is the
window washing, and therefore there is the need for curtain walls to provide platforms for the
window washing (Krarti 2016 p.476).
Life Safety Systems
The life safety systems have the stairways which act as the vertical emergency exits.
Under the circumstances of fire outbreaks, the elevators shut down automatically with the intent
of preventing trapping of individuals in the elevators (Gupta 2017 p.39). Also, there are
emergency generator systems to be used in the operation of the elevators when power fails.
Additionally, there are exterior connections usually at the street level primarily for the portable

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fire truck pumps. The fire hoses are also placed in every room, and they are used by the
professional firefighters.
Materials for Construction of Tall Buildings
The materials used for the foundations of tall buildings are usually concrete with
reinforcing steel. The framing system, on the other hand, is made of steel. Further, the stair shafts
and elevator are made from concrete which is reinforced with steel (Rashid and Yusoff 2015
p.245). The other elements of tall buildings such as the glass storefronts are made of glass, but
they are held by metals such as aluminum. Additionally, the roof of tall buildings is a concrete
slab placed on a steel deck and covered by a waterproof product. The tall buildings also have
certain antennae at the top which is also made of steel.
Construction Methods
The techniques include;
Slip form
The slip form is a type of construction method under which concrete is poured onto a
moving form continuously. It, therefore, entails a consistent putting of concrete in a shallow
mold. The slip form which the method forms provide the working deck which is jacked upwards
until it reaches the elevation rate (Ramage et al. 2017 p.350). The slip form method of
construction usually allows for a continuous pouring of concrete into the walls. However, it stops
when the required height is attained. At the top of the formwork is filled with a concrete while at
the lowest layer which had been filled by concrete to form the height of the formwork. The types
of slip form include vertical slip form, horizontal slip form, and tapered slip form.
Tunnel Form

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The tunnel form is often applied in repetitive cellular structures. It is considered a modern
type of innovation which allows the construction of vertical and horizontal elements ((Shou et al.
2015 p.300).
Column system formwork
The column system formwork is usually available in steel and aluminum. Such a
construction method enables quick assembly and erection on site. It also minimizes crane time
and labor (Shukla et al. 2016 p.100).
Plant and Machinery used in Construction of Tall Buildings
The plant and machinery used in the construction of tall buildings are classified into a
variety of categories such as the earth moving equipment, material handling equipment, and
construction equipment. The material handling equipment includes forklifts, cranes, and
conveyors (Lloret et al. 2015 p.40). The construction equipment, on the other hand, entails,
concrete mixers, pavers, spraying and plastering machines. Lastly, the earth moving equipment
may include the loaders, excavators, motor graders and crawker loader. Other equipment
includes plumb lazer, protection screen, concrete pump, tower crane, and platforms.
Conclusion and Recommendation
In summary, the construction of tall buildings entails a variety of aspects which must be
taken into consideration. For instance, the types of materials, construction methods and plant and
equipment are of great concern during the process of construction of tall buildings. The other
elements entail major excavation techniques, ground stabilization techniques and ground
dewatering techniques to basement construction of a tall building. Additionally, the foundation
systems applicable to tall building construction must be considered such as shallow and deep
foundations. Lastly, the structural forces that act upon tall buildings, the design principles that

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address those forces particularly on the building’s sub-structure and super- structure has to be
considered during the construction of tall buildings.
Critical Reflection
Based on the learning outcomes of the topic of construction management I have learnt a
number of elements during the construction of tall buildings. For instance, I have learnt about the
plant and equipment which are used during the construction of tall buildings such as the tower
cranes, protection screens, and plumb lazer among others. Such information about the equipment
has helped understand and therefore be in a position to select the right equipment which can be
used during the construction of tall buildings. I have also learnt about the construction methods
and techniques which are generally applied in the construction of tall buildings and such include,
the slip form, jump form, column system formwork and tunnel formwork among others.
Another key thing which I have learnt is on major excavation techniques, ground
stabilization techniques and ground dewatering techniques to basement construction of a tall
building. The knowledge has therefore equipped me with excavation techniques such as vertical
and hybrid excavation used in the construction of tall buildings. Additionally, I have gained
knowledge on the ground dewatering techniques such as sump pumping where the groundwater
is often allowed to flow into the excavation and later collected in a sump. The other methods
include siphon pumping. Further, the knowledge of ground stabilization techniques has enabled
me to understand the methods such as mechanical stabilization which involves the alteration of
the physical nature of ground particles and this is done by compaction or vibration. The other
method which I have learnt is the chemical stabilization under which the ground stabilization
entirely depends on the chemical reactions between the soil minerals and stabilizer
In regards to the knowledge of foundation systems applicable to tall building
construction, I have learnt on foundation systems such as the shallow foundation which include,

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raft foundation, individual footings, and strip footings. In raft foundation, the basement floor slab
is considered as the foundation and the, therefore, the weight of the entire building is spread over
the footprint of the building. The other category of foundation system used during the
construction of tall buildings is the deep foundation which includes various classifications such
as friction plies and end bearing piles.
Further, the knowledge of the structural forces that act upon tall buildings, the design
principles that address those forces particularly on the building’s sub-structure and super-
structure has enabled me to learn on the structural forces acting on tall buildings and the forces
are referred to as the vectors. They are indicated by arrows. Also, there is the stress and strain
which also act on the tall building and thus help maintain the stability of the structures.
Additionally, I have learnt on the design principles which address the forces acting on the
building's sub structure and super structure. Some of the principles include structural properties,
load, and structural members. The structural members include beams, columns, footings, and
concrete. The structural properties include hardness, strength, and elasticity among others.

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