Teaching and Learning in Middle Schooling: A Literature Review

This literature review explores the effectiveness of middle schooling through teaching and learning in middle schooling. It covers the characteristics of middle schooling, pedagogy, assessment, and more. The review concludes that the quality of the teacher is the main determinant of experiences and attitudes of schooling. It is also responsible for the behavior of students in the classroom. To be effective, high self-efficacy for the teacher is required where teachers are expected to develop a personal belief in their abilities and professionalism and also in their rank to influence students’ outcomes.

LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Name
Course
Tutor
University
Date

LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Introduction
The middle years have been defined previously using various definitions identifying the
use of age ranges and on other occasions using the years at school or the grades. However, from
a broad perspective, middle years refer to young people whose age fall in between the range
from 10 to 15 years (Pendergast, et al., 2017). One thing to note is that the bridge for middle
years inculcates the period from pre-pubescence to adolescence and further encompassing sexual
maturity. It also encompasses the upper primary to junior secondary education conventionally
these were two different types of schooling in the form of delivering curriculum, structure, and
teaching method.
What are middle schools
The rise of middle schools has led to the establishments of such schools in response to
satisfying the needs of students in the middle years and involves either a structural arrangement
or a pedagogical approach in accommodating students in that age bracket (Pendergast, et al.,
2017). However, the work in middle years has tended to concentrate on the convergence and
transformation of the curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy and to a lesser extent on
organizational elements that meet the demands of adolescents (Prosser, 2008). It is not a matter
of rearranging the conventional structures but is a new concept all the same.

LITERATURE REVIEW 3
In reality, a wide range of middle school models exist. For instance, there are separate
middle schools that include anything within the range of five to ten years. There are also middle
school units that are within the larger framework of K/1-12/13 year. Also, there are middle
school units that exist within the primary schools; there are those within the larger secondary
school who embrace philosophies entailing middle schools and practices. Within the types of
middle schools stated above, there are further classifications. Some middle schools support
single-sex while others are co-educational.
Characteristics of middle schooling
Integrated and Disciplinary curricula
It is acknowledged that the curriculum that is coherent be adopted in attempting to meet
the needs of early adolescents, and it should focus mainly on the identified needs (Pendergast, et
al., 2017). The curriculum is negotiated and related to the outside environment beyond the
classroom. Also, it is explicit and grounded on the outcome (Pendergast, et al., 2017). The
recording of progress and achievement is in a continuous mode with regards to statements that
are explicit of expectation of students in what they should know and their ability to do tasks. This
results in transforming views and practices involving pedagogy that is the way students are
taught.
Classroom pedagogy in this context is tailored to suit the needs and abilities of middle
year learners. Also, for the pedagogy to be effective, it must be flexible enough, portraying
creativity in time utilization, space, and resources as well as team and individual needs.
(Pendergast, et al., 2017) The pedagogy must also be student-oriented with a focus on
personalized directives and learning that is co-constructed. With indications from literature, it

LITERATURE REVIEW 4
must be focused on teamwork engaging both the teachers and students all of whom need
environments that are supportive, challenging and moral.
Authentic and reflective assessment
Assessments for the middle schooling must also be relevant, original and linked to the
life experiences of the young people (Pendergast, et al., 2017). The goals of education for this
cohort are specific to the middle years and must be determined. Such fundamental
transformations in reshaping the curriculum and pedagogy should be about reshaping the
prevailing practices. The effectiveness of pedagogy is the main focus of education of middle
years as it entails an approach that is intentional to teaching and learning that is dynamic and
relevant to the many needs and interests of students in middle years in both the formal and
informal learning contexts (Andrews & Bishop , 2012). Extensive research affirms that the
quality of a teacher is the most fundamental element in improving the learning outcomes for
learners. Thus, quality teaching and learning resources are the most crucial elements in middle
years.
Collaborative teaching and cooperative learning
The school organization also involves collaboration and support by the teachers in all
subjects and year levels. Positive changes in middle schooling can only be accomplished with the
support garnered from the administration (Pendergast, et al., 2017). With the administration’s
help, there are substantial resources for all levels in the form of a pool of experienced teachers
and support staff equipped with high-quality infrastructure, technology, and materials.
Parental and community involvement

LITERATURE REVIEW 5
The school is also community centered with parents and other relevant stakeholders
engaging in productive and sustained cooperation with the school (Pendergast, et al., 2017).
There are some models for middle schooling that are gaining popularity due to their effectiveness
with the inclusion of pod structures with a group of learners (Scales, et al., 2000).
Heterogenous and flexible student groupings
The pod structures involve a group ranging 70-100 and a small number of teachers from
four to seven who are maintain the pod. However, the teachers may loop with the pod that stays
with the same group in a period extending from two to three years and then assigned a new group
after the stipulated period is over.
Clear physiology
In Australia for instance, schools function on a two-tiered system that is the primary and
secondary providing a very diverse context for the reforms for middle schools. (Pendergast, et
al., 2017) A critical element that revolves around the underlying philosophy of transformation in
the middle years of schooling in the education context of Australia is the seamless shift from
primary to secondary education. The primary schooling is student-centered, and the secondary
education, on the other hand, is discipline oriented. Such a transition leads to more student
learning, experiences that are positive in adolescence and a desire and passion for lifelong
education. Such issues transcend the traditional shift from the primary school that is small to a
secondary school that is large (Pendergast, et al., 2017). Hurdles are exacerbated by the existence
of different structures, new teacher-student relationships and the unique needs of adolescent
students and the differing emphases learners encounter in the transition from the primary to
secondary schooling. Substantial evidence reveals the failure of traditional units for learners in

LITERATURE REVIEW 6
the middle years. The boys have been reported to meet the specific demands for adolescent
learners as they often manifest disengagement from schooling as portrayed by their poor
behavior and achievement (Cowles, 2014). Students in middle schooling are also made to believe
that they have to face the responsiveness of a teacher that is variable. In the student’s view, the
teachers must deal with the repercussions of disengagement by learners and variable
environments.
Higher order thinking strategies
One of the desired outcomes that are effective in middle years pedagogy is the higher
order thinking (Moran, 2016). The higher-order thinking is imminent in some of the models and
frameworks such as the Education Queensland (Pendergast, et al., 2017). Higher order thinking
has been classified as one of the productive pedagogies. Higher order thinking dictates that
students should change information and ideas in means that transform their meaning and
repercussions. Such transformations arise when learners integrate facts and ideas with the aim of
either synthesizing or arriving at some interpretation (Pendergast, et al., 2017). It is through
manipulation of information that students can solve some problems and discover new
understandings and meanings.
Engaging students in the construction of knowledge introduces an element of uncertainty
in the instructional processes making instructional outcomes unpredictable. In such a case, the
teacher is uncertain of the products from the student (Hart, 2017).In helping the students become
knowledge producers, the teacher should create environments that allow learners opportunities to
be involved in higher-order thinking.

LITERATURE REVIEW 7
The involvement of students in decision making through a democratic classroom and a
school climate has been seen to improve the teacher-student relationship (Pendergast, et al.,
2017). In this model, the students are assigned leadership positions that enable them to become
part of school administrators and are therefore responsible for the conduct and behavior of other
students. The students that have been appointed leader are also the channels used in raising
student issues to the administration for further help (Brinegar, et al., 2018). There is a consistent
view in the middle schooling literature that the traditional models of teaching and power regimes
are oppressive to students and that the arrangements in middle school accord the opportunity for
teacher-student relationships that are positive. Student involvement in the school decision
making is thought to raise the student engagement and motivation. Classrooms and learning
environments that are based on mutual respect and fair student welfare with discipline policies
have been highly encouraged in this model. Student welfare was found to be the core in middle
schools and was the responsibility of all staff members.
The objective of student support is to facilitate and motivate students to embrace
education. Support from leaders in the student welfare programs is necessary, and students
fathom and support student welfare as a favor done for them. With time it there have been some
improvements in the standards and attitude that in most cases underpins academic progress,
personal growth, and cohesion in middle schooling.
Importance of signature practices
Family and community partnerships are important in supporting and creating an enabling
environment conducive to student learning (Pendergast, et al., 2017). The partnerships echo the
current widespread call for increased participation by the family and community in educating the
young people from the government perspective, teacher organizations and business fraternity.

LITERATURE REVIEW 8
A positive school climate identifies and gives credit to the fact that the school itself is the
teacher (Wellenreiter, 2018). The learning environment posed by the school regarding physical
facilities and the human relationships are important conditions that should be met to establish a
conducive environment where learning takes place.
Varied teaching and learning approaches are important components needed in
diversifying the learning techniques and maturation of mental levels among cohorts of young
adolescents.
The inadequacy that has been linked to the conventional systems of ranking and negative
lessons they teach have led to demands for measures that are original in reporting the progress of
the students. Such approaches are considered less competitive while being more informative at
the same time and engage students in self-evaluation.
Adaptable organization structures reflect the will and motivation that the school is aiming
in attempting to accommodate the diversity of the students (Cook, et al., 2016). The flexibility
also allows students to associate themselves with a group of peers and breaks the rigidity of the
uniformed schedule.
A detailed curriculum that is involving and integrative is necessary. The curriculum
involves many collective courses and subjects of study. The curriculum should, therefore,
demonstrate the kind of needs of adolescents. The whole curriculum should be based on
exploratory learning and not just designation of disciplines.
Comprehensive guidance and support services where it is the responsibility of the school
to facilitate and avail more than instructions to students. The young adolescent learners need

LITERATURE REVIEW 9
programs that accommodate peer discussions, personalized attention by professionals and in
some rare cares referral services to professionals when needed.
High expectations for everyone requires that teachers and learners themselves have high
hopes (Pendergast, et al., 2017). It is important to understand that high expectations here refer to
motivating and empowering students to learn and become intellectually connected. It also
teaches students how to behave as responsible citizens.
A shared vision depicts the necessity of educators adopting a vision that is idealistic and
captivating. The vision reveals the very best that can be imagined about factors that impact
schooling and that includes achievements met by students, the participation of students in the
community and positive relationships that are teacher-student oriented.
Conclusion
A review of literature involving teaching and learning in middle schooling arrived at
some conclusions that the effectiveness of middle schooling is impacted by the quality of a
teacher and instructional effectiveness and is affected to a lesser degree by learner’s
compositional characteristics and structural arrangements. The review further reveals that nexus
between the quality of the teacher and the outcome of students by identifying that the quality of
the teacher is the main determinant of experiences and attitudes of schooling. It is also
responsible for the behavior of students in the classroom. To be effective, high self-efficacy for
the teacher is required where teachers are expected to develop a personal belief in their abilities
and professionalism and also in their rank to influence students’ outcomes. Thus, the need for
middle school teachers that are effective with self-efficacy is incontestable if high performance is
to be achieved in such schools.

LITERATURE REVIEW 10
The middle years are also considered to be the period when young adolescents start
thinking more deeply about the environment around them and take a more proactive approach to
learning and thinking. However, according to the Northern Territory Council has made attempts
in clarifying the terminology as follows; there seems to be a true meaning of the term middle
years middle school and middle schooling. For instance, middle years means the years of the
initial adolescent stage; the middle school also refers to separate organization entity for
adolescents that are young. Lastly, middle schooling identifies a specific philosophy of teaching,
learning methods and curriculum development for middle school learners.
References

LITERATURE REVIEW 11
Andrews, C. & Bishop , P., 2012. Middle grades transition. Middle School Journal, 45(8), pp. 8-
14.
Brinegar, K., Harrison, L. & Hurd, E., 2018. Emancipation through empowerment. Middle
School Journal, 49(2), pp. 2-3.
Cook, C. M., Faulkner, S. A. & Howell, P. B., 2016. The developmentally responsive middle
school: Meeting the needs of all students. Middle School Journal, 47(5), pp. 3-13.
Cowles, E., 2014. The American Biology Teacher. University of California Press Journals, 6(9),
pp. 633-634.
Hart, L., 2017. Traits & Characteristics of Middle School Learners. [Online]
Available at: https://classroom.synonym.com/traits-characteristics-middle-school-learners-
17814.html
[Accessed 5 April 2018].
Moran, K., 2016. Anxiety in the classroom: Implications for middle school teachers. Middle
School Journal, 27-32(1), p. 47.
Pendergast, D., Main, K. & Bahr, N., 2017. Rethinking Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment.
In: D. Pendergast, ed. Teaching Middle Years. NSW: A&U Academic, pp. 323-358.
Pendergast, D., Main, K. & Bahr, N., 2017. School Reform and Sustainable Practice. 3rd ed.
NSW: A&U Academic.
Prosser, B., 2008. Unfinished but Not Yet Exhausted: A Review of Australian Middle Schooling.
Australian Journal of Education, 52(2), pp. 151-167.

LITERATURE REVIEW 12
Scales, P. C., Blyth, D. A. & Berkas, T. H., 2000. The Effects of Service-Learning on Middle
School Students’ Social Responsibility and Academic Success. The Journal of Early
Adolescence, 20(3), pp. 332-358.
Wellenreiter, B. R., 2018. Hallways paved with good intentions: Analyzing rules and procedures
in non-classroom middle school spaces. Middle School Journal, 49(2), pp. 10-15.