Technological Pedagogy and Teacher

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Learning and Teaching with Technology: Technological Pedagogy and Teacher
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Doron Zinger
University of California, Irvine
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Tamara Tate
University of California, Irvine
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Mark Warschauer
University of California, Irvine
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In this chapter, we examine technology-enhanced pedagogy in the context of
teacher learning and classroom practice. We define and discuss technology-
rich environments, which encompass a complex combination of tools, cur-
ricula, contexts, and teachers. We will point out that technocentrist
approaches (see discussion in Papert, 1990) persist in the classroom and note
their counterproductive nature. We then conceptualize technological peda-
gogy within the framework of technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK) (Koehler & Mishra, 2009), which presents a useful way to situate
technology and teacher knowledge. Finally, we broaden our view to examine
technological contexts across a number of settings and the impact of socio-
cultural factors on the use of technology and the enactment of technological
pedagogy.
In exploring varied teaching contexts, we identify emerging characteristics
that support or hinder teacher learning of technological pedagogy and imple-
mentation of high quality instruction. In particular, we examine barriers that
teachers and schools are likely to confront in developing teacher technological
pedagogy and practice. We consider both pre-service teacher education programs
and in-service teacher professional development (PD), and their roles in pro-
moting teacher technological pedagogy and improved classroom practice. We
look at affordances in existing pre-service and in-service programs, and make
recommendations for productive approaches to improve teacher technological
pedagogy.
33
Learning and Teaching with
Technology: Technological
Pedagogy and Teacher Practice
D o ro n Z i n g e r, Ta m a r a Ta t e a n d
M a r k Wa r s c h a u e r
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The SAGe hAndbook of ReSeARch on TeAcheR educATion578
BACKGROUND
Technological Literacy, a Global Priority
Preparing today’s global workforce for the information and communication tech-
nologies (ICT) used daily in commerce is a national priority for many countries;
arguably, developing a competitive ICT workforce is most important for devel-
oping countries (Jhurree, 2005). Most national governments look to educational
systems to address the need for digital literacy, which places the responsibility
for preparing students on schools and teachers (Epstein, Nisbet, & Gillespie,
2011). The approach to meeting this need for an ICT-conversant workforce
varies widely by country and region (Ayanso, Cho, & Lertwachara, 2014), as do
the barriers, challenges, and limitations to access, skills, and usage of digital
technology (ITU, 2009). Nonetheless, the challenge to educate a digitally literate
populace is broadly faced globally.
Technocentrist Approaches to Classroom Technology Use
Despite the breadth of literature arguing against them (Jimoyiannis & Komis,
2007; Warschauer, Cotten, & Ames, 2011), technocentrist (Papert, 1990)
approaches continue to be employed across the globe with poor outcomes
(OECD, 2015), often attracting a great deal of publicity (e.g., Sugata Mitra’s
$1 million TED prize for his school in the cloud). The technocentrist approach
views technology access as its own end (Papert, 1990). The technological device
itself is viewed as the solution to an instructional challenge.
Moving away from technocentrist approaches requires a significant change in
thinking by policy makers and those in leadership positions. Nonetheless, it is an
important step to conceptualizing technology-rich environments that are likely to
improve teacher practice and student learning. Globally, this shift continues to be
a challenge, as decades-old calls to consider pedagogy as an integral part of tech-
nology (Watson, 2001) continue to go unheeded. Indeed, publicized failures of
large-scale technology projects such as the Los Angeles Unified School District
(LAUSD) iPad program (Cuban, 2013) and Turkey’s FATIH program (Gamze
Isci & Besir Demir, 2015) have helped demonstrate the failure of device-focused
approaches that largely ignore teaching practice and pedagogy.
In both the LAUSD and Turkish cases, the lack of technical support and lack of
time invested in teacher professional development were identified as central rea-
sons for program failure. In the case of LAUSD, teachers were initially provided
with only two or three days of training on the general use of the device (Margolin
et al., 2015). The findings from the LAUSD and Turkish technology programs are
consistent with our own previous research in Birmingham (Warschauer, Cotten,
& Ames, 2011), where a top-down, hardware-driven approach failed to support
instructional pedagogy and student learning. We argue that technology can be
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Learning and Teaching wiTh TechnoLogy579
an integral part of solving challenges in teacher instruction or practice; however,
technology use should be predicated on the instructional problem of practice. In
the cases mentioned above, there was little consultation with teachers or instruc-
tional practice in the deployment of technology. In the context of access, skill,
and usage, these cases demonstrate that even when abundant access was avail-
able, the absence of skill and usage on the part of teachers limited students’ skill
and usage. Conversely, we note that positive student outcomes have been achieved
when teachers are provided with technical support and professional development
for the integration of technology in the classroom (Warschauer, 2011; Warschauer,
Zheng, Niiya, Cotten, & Farkas, 2014).
Technology-Rich Environments
What are technology-rich environments? Though the framework access, skills, and
usage has been applied on a macro level to define entire countries as technology-
rich (ITU, 2009), it may also serve as a useful framework on a micro level to look
at teaching and classrooms. We conceptualize technology-rich environments in the
classroom as providing access to digital technology, developing skills with digital
technology, and enacting and supporting usage of digital technology. The extent of
access, skills, and usage then define the affordances for student learning.
Though access is important, the types and number of devices used in
technology-rich classrooms vary widely (Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Glazewski,
Newby, & Ertmer, 2010). Furthermore, the effective integration of technology
may be more dependent on curriculum and instruction than the particular techno-
logical tool (Earle, 2002). Thus, we suggest that in the context of access, skills,
and usage, technology-rich environments are dependent on the teachers who
instruct the student as much as they are dependent on the availability and affor-
dances of the technology itself. We additionally point to the wide range and avail-
ability of technological tools and resources in effective classrooms to suggest that
there is no single technological saturation point or narrow description of what
technology-rich learning environments should look like (Ottenbreit-Leftwich
et al., 2010). Technology-rich environments may exist in unexpected places and
with limited resources, if teachers are able to effectively leverage those resources
in ways that support the curriculum and student learning.
Globally, the pursuit of technology-rich classrooms is unfolding at different
rates, with different emphases. Developing countries are focusing on greater
access to digital technology (du Plessis & Webb, 2012) and developed countries
are confronting issues of skill and usage (Haight, Quan-Haase, & Corbett, 2014;
van Deursen & van Dijk, 2013). In developed countries where digital technol-
ogy has proliferated in society and schools, ICT has become a common part
of classrooms, as well as teacher preparation and in-service training programs.
Nonetheless, the presence of ICT has not resulted in universal improvements
in academic performance and learning (OECD, 2015). Indeed, ICT should be
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