Thermodynamic Systems and Viscosity Properties in Fluids

This article discusses the operation of industrial thermodynamic systems and their properties, application of the first law of thermodynamics, and the index of compression in polytrophic processes. It also covers the properties of viscosity in fluids and the three viscosity measurement techniques. The subject is Higher National Diploma in Aeronautical Engineering, and the course code is Unit 64: ThermoFluids.

Higher National Diploma in Aeronautical Engineering
Unit 64: ThermoFluids
Academic Year: 2017/2018
Assignment Title:
Blackburn Meadows Power Station
Student Name
Student ID Number
Unit Assessor: Sumana Subramanyam
Internal Verifier Name: Praneeta Phadke
Date of submission:
26/07/2018

Task A
Operation of Industrial Thermodynamic systems and their properties
The industrial thermodynamic systems operate on different cycles depending on the fluid
propellant. The Carnot cycle is implemented on the heat engines and thermal machines. The gas
turbine cycles are used to model the complex turbo machine operations focusing on the
mechanical shaft power production from the fuel chemical energy. The Brayton cycle is used to
man to the operation of the system using standard air implementation whose basis is the ideal gas
behavior. All the individual process: isothermal, isometric, isobaric, and isentropic processes, are
implemented and analyzed using different cycles.
The steam Turbine is a commonly implemented thermodynamic system in the industry
whose operating principle is founded on the Rankine cycle. Steam power plants use water to
generate power. The water rotates the blades and electricity is induced and transmitted out of the
power plant to commercial and residential users. The steam turbines form the backbone of the
steam power plants, where water is the propellant. With the Rankine cycle, only reversible
processes are adopted in the system. Reversible processes conserve energy and ensure that the
first law of thermodynamics is upheld in the production process. At the inception, the water
undergoes isentropic compression. The water, in its compressed state, is driven to the steam
generator. The illustration below shows the movement of water in the power plant equipment,
Figure 1 Block diagram of the stages of a Steam power plant for power generation [source: semantic scholar]

Figure 2 Temperature- Specific Entropy diagram and Carnot Cycle
Some of the thermodynamic systems are adiabatic while others are reversible. Reversible
systems are desired as they uphold the first law of thermodynamics which focusses on the
conservation of energy. The device produces maximum benefits for a specified amount of
resources. The process efficiency of a thermodynamic system and process is determined by the
reversibility of the processes (Jones, 2007). A set of the key factors that could impact the process
efficiency include heat loss in the form of friction. This heat loss causes the irreversibility of
certain processes that ought to follow through on the Isentropic process. The result of the friction
on the thermodynamic system is irreversibility which accrues the isentropic efficiency. The
efficiency seeks to determine the process efficacy or system performance. It is, therefore, a ratio
given as,
ηiso ,turbine= h¿−heirr
h¿−herev
The properties of thermodynamic systems are,
(i) A thermodynamic system exists in a closed or open boundary. It may be closed using
control or fixed mass or may be open in the case of a flowing mass or a movable or
stationary mass.

(ii) Thermodynamic systems seek to attain a certain level of equilibrium where the
system properties are invariable. These systems are independent of mass and density
of the system parameters.
(iii) Thermodynamic extensive property tends to vary directly with mass. The systems are
based on processes and cycles. The processes denote paths from one state to a
different state.
(iv) These systems are exposed to environmental factors which affect the operation or the
processes of the system. During the design of the system, all these processes are taken
into consideration as they affect the duration and energy required to move the system
from one state to the other (Barrow, n.d.).
(v) The thermodynamic systems are governed by four laws namely the zeroth law, first
law, second law and third law of thermodynamics. All these laws demonstrate the
relationship between the thermodynamic systems with other environmental factors
surrounding the system in the cycle.
Application of the first law of thermodynamics to industrial systems.
THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY LAW
The first law of thermodynamics states that during any given process or cycle that a control mass
system undergoes, the integral of heat about the cycle is proportional to the integral of work
about the same cycle or process (Eric Hendriks*†, et al., 2010). It is denoted as,
J∮ δQ=∮ δW
The cyclic integral of the heat transfer represents the net heat transfer during the cycle while the
cyclic integral of the work characterizes the net work done during the entire cycle (Edmister,
2005). There is a proportionality factor that depends solely on the units of work and heat denoted
as, J=4.1860 Joules /cal. The changes in the cycle are as denoted in the graphical illustration
below,

Figure 3 First law of Thermodynamics for a change in the state of the control mass [source: web.ncyu.edu.tw]
The analysis is carried out further to demonstrate the linear relationship between the energy,
work and the cycle such that,
∮δQ=∮δW
∫
1
2
δ QA +∫
2
1
δ QB=∫
1
2
δ W A +∫
2
1
δ WB
Another loop C defines a change in the control mass from state 1 to state 2. The cycle can be
analyzed such that,
∫
1
2
δ Qc+∫
2
1
δ QB =∫
1
2
δ W c+∫
2
1
δ W B
When the loop A-B is subtracted from loop C,
∫
1
2
δ QA−∫
1
2
δ QC=∫
1
2
δ W A −∫
1
2
δ W C
It can be written as,
∫
1
2
¿ ¿
The quantity δQ−δW depends on their initial and final states as opposed to the path followed by
each state.
dE=δQ−δW

Based on the equation of the conservation of energy as illustrated above, the net change of the
energy of the control mass is always equal to the net transfer of the energy across the boundary
as heat and work. Energy can cross the frontier of a control mass as either heat or work (Powers,
2018).
The industrial thermodynamic systems apply the first law of thermodynamics to support their
operations. One main application is in the heat engines, heat exchangers, commercial or public
heater and compressor systems, boilers, and turbines in the steam power plants. According to
Rudolf Clausius (1850), the law of energy conservation is based on the fact that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, rather it changes from one form to another.
Relationships between system constants for a perfect gas
An ideal gas is seen to interact with other parameters in its environment such that,
PV ( volume )=N R T
¿ N ( number of moles of gas ∈V )
The internal energy depends on the temperature of the surrounding. The industrial thermal
systems are suitable examples of the conservation of energy. The figure below demonstrates a
thermal control machine with system parameters in its surrounding.
For the confirmation of the first law of Thermodynamics in the implementation of the thermal
system, the inlet and outlet mass fluxes are equal. It is important to highlight that the first law of

thermodynamics does not work in isolation. Other laws like the rate of entropy, the heat enthalpy
under the second law of thermodynamics, and reversibility analysis also apply to determine the
cumulative operation of the thermodynamic system (José, 2012).
Index of compression in polytrophic processes. Analyze an operational industrial
thermodynamic system regarding work done.
Thermodynamic systems implement both the first and second laws in the design of thermal
systems. Some of the thermal systems commonly studied in thermodynamics are the internal
combustion engines and the gas turbines. They are developed by the standard air cycles which
are analyzed using the ideal gas behavior and transformations. The polytrophic process follows
the pressure and volume relationship such that,
P V n=const
n=polytrophic coefficient
The polytrophic process can analyze all the individual reversible processes at a go. Some of the
processes analyzed are the isothermal, isochoric, isobaric, and isentropic processes. The
relationship between pressure, temperature, and polytrophic coefficient in the individual
processes is related as,
Process P S V T n
Isobaric Constant Varies 0
Isothermal Varies Constant 1
Isentropic Constant Gamma
Isochoric Constan
t
∞
A reversible process is denoted such as,
w=−∫
P 1
Po
vdP=−const ∫
P 1
P 2
dP
P
1
n
For the isothermal process, n=1,

¿−∫
P 1
Po
vdP=−const ∫
P 1
P 2
dP
P =−P1 v1 ln ( P2
P1 )=−P2 v2 ln ( P2
P1 )=−RT ln ( P2
P1 )
For other processes, where n=0,
¿−∫
P 1
Po
vdP=−const ∫
P 1
P 2
dP
P
1
n
= −n
n−1 ( P2 v2 −P1 v1 ) =−nR
n−1 ( T 2−T 1 )
From an ideal gas transformation equation, the ICE and gas turbines are modeled using the
Brayton and Diesel cycles which are air standard cycles. The polytrophic process is given as,
Wor kdone=∫ cdV
V n
¿ P1 V 1−P2 V 2
n−1 =wor kdone
dE=δQ−δW
E2− E1=q− P1 V 1−P2 V 2
n−1
E2− E1=Cv ( T 2−T 1 )=q−w
q= R ( T2−T 1 )
γ −1 + P1 V 1−P2 V 2
n−1
q=R ( T 1−T 2 ) {( 1
n−1 )− ( 1
γ −1 ) }
q= ( P1 V 1−P2 V 2
n−1 ) { γ −n
γ −1 }
q=w∗{ γ −n
γ −1 }
Turbines develop power when a gas or liquid is passed through a set of blades attached to a shaft
free to rotate hence the operation of the system is based on the gas energy transformations.

The turbine is a steam power plant is modeled by taking into consideration the kinetic and
potential energy of the system. The turbine is modeled such that,
0= ˙Qcv− ˙W cw + ˙m [ ( h1−h2 ) + v1
2−v2
2
2 + g ( z1 −z2 ) ]
Assuming that the kinetic and potential energies are dropped out from the model,
0= ˙Qcv− ˙W cw + ˙m [ ( h1−h2 ) ]
When the heat transfer in the surrounding is considered negligible, the ˙Qcv is dropped, hence,
− ˙W cw + ˙m [ ( h1−h2 ) ] =0
˙W cw = ˙m(h1−h2)
In a nutshell, the index of compression, for the quasi-equilibrium process is dependent on
the individual process (Sullivan, 2013); it could be isobaric, isometric, and isothermal processes
as illustrated in the table above.
Task B
Illustrate the properties of viscosity in fluids. Discuss the three viscosity measurement
techniques
In fluid mechanics, the viscosity quantitatively measures the fluid resistance to flow.
Fluid is observed to deform continuously, as the fluid flows from one point to another. They are
subject to shear forces only when in motion, but no shear forces affect them while at rest. It can

be dynamic or kinematic such that when the fluid resistance to flow is measured concerning
relative shearing motion, it is considered dynamic viscosity,
η= F
[ A∗( u
h ) ]
η= τ
( u
h ) [N −s/ m2 ]
When the resistance to is a ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of fluid,
η
ρ =v
The viscosity index is used to accurately determine the viscosity-temperature
characteristics of oils or heavy kinds of fluids. It is given as,
VI (viscosity index)= L−U
L−H ∗10
Pressure has a huge effect on the viscosity of lubricants, especially if the pressure is
above the standard atmospheric pressure. The Barus equation:
ηp =η0 eαp
Analyze the effects of shear force on Newtonian fluids
According to fluid mechanics, the shear stresses for fluids in motion are developed when
the fluid molecules and particles move relative to each other. The particles move at different
velocities and direction; hence the fluid shape is distorted while in motion. One suitable example
is the motion of water on the slab surface. Fluids are a category that factors in water, oils,
lubricants, and gases. The liquids are difficult to compress, hence incompressible while the gases
are easy to compress as the particles of a gaseous substance are scattered over a large volume of
space. Some of the fluids that are termed as Newtonian fluids are air, water, oil, alcohol,
kerosene, Benzene, Glycerin, and gasoline. All these fluids obey the Newtonian law of viscosity.
The law is denoted as,

τ (shear stress)=μ du
dy
The shear stress is given as a ratio of the velocity gradient. The viscosity is a function
only of the condition of the fluid based on its temperature. There is a linear association between
the shear stress and the velocity gradient such that the slope and the viscosity are constant. The
cohesion and interaction of the fluid particle during motion determines the resistance to shear
deformation. The deformation of a fluid depends on the viscosity such that,
Deformatio nrate ∝ 1
viscosity … . fluids
τ ∝ y … stress vs . strain rate
The Newtonian fluids have a linear relationship between the stress and strain. The rate of
deformation is directly proportional to the shear stress forces ratio and as a result, there is, a one-
dimensional system relationship as denoted by the law of viscosity. A number of fluids have
been shown in the following illustration; they tend to demonstrate the behavior. The dynamic
viscosity is given as,
Figure 4 Variation of the Shear-stress with rate of deformation
The temperature in the fluid’s surrounding affects the viscosity such that for liquids, an
increase in temperature reduces the viscosity, whereas, for gases, an increase in temperature

causes an increase in the viscosity. The Sutherland’s correlation is used in the analysis of
viscosity for gases with respect to temperature. It is denoted as,
μ
μ0
=
( T
T 0 ) 3
2
( T 0 +S
T +S )
Compare the results of viscosity test on a Newtonian fluid with that which is given on a
data sheet and explain any discrepancies.
Fluid η0 β k Nominal Viscous
behavior
S60 (N1) 0.137 13.5 0.1 Newtonian
DMS T25 (N2) 0.485 5.5 0.16 Newtonian
N1000 (N3) 2.867 5.6 0.1 Newtonian
Water 0.0010 6.7 0.5 Newtonian
Glycerol-water-PEO solution (T=22.50
C)
0.0155 . 0.4 Weakly shear-
thining
Aqueous xanthan gum solution
(T=220C)
11.5 . . Strongly shear
thining
CPyCl/NaSal micellar solution
(T=220C)
14.5 . . Shear banding
There is a slight discrepancy from the theoretical datasheet information such that the
deviation is on the scale of 0.56 percent. This is a negligible discrepancy which may be caused
by environmental factors such as the changes in temperature of the surrounding during the time
the laboratory tests were being carried out. The shear forces tested on the thermodynamic
equipment during manufacture may be different during the practical implementation. Some of
the factors to consider in such cases include:
(i) Wear and tear of the inner sections or irregularity in the structure of the equipment
especially in pipe systems and hydraulic machines. The flow may be affected
especially if the system is not designed to accommodate the turbulent flow.
(ii) The use of Newtonian fluid with some impurities. The impurities may affect some of
the parameters that determine the viscosity coefficient of a fluid during flow.
Impurities affect the density, particle-to-particle velocity due to increased random
collisions. The velocity changes which affects the rate of flow.

(iii)
Task C
Examine the characteristics of fluid flow in industrial piping systems. Review the
significance of the Reynolds number on fluid flow in a given system
Many manufacturing industries have well-designed and complex piping systems that are
used to transmit fluids from one point to another. A common example of the application of
piping systems in the steam power plants is the transmission of fly ash slurry from the thermal
power plant to the external disposal of ash ponds. Similarly, in a thermal power plant, there is
water used to turn the turbines at the blades. The water is ferried to the dam or large storage
tanks through some closed ducts, could be metallic or hard plastics or conduits. The oil refineries
have very well-structured piping systems that transfer oil from the processing plant to the
different storage units for distribution. The oil companies use the pressure pipelines for the oil
transmission as it is a heavy and viscous fluid.
The driving force that governs the fluid motion in the closed ducts is the pressure
difference between the inlet and the outlets. There are several modes of fluid flow within the
pipes which highly depend on the flow rates. The flow modes are:
(i) Laminar flow
(ii) Turbulent flow
(iii) Transitional flow
The different modes of flow are attributed to the Reynolds number. The Reynold’s number for
the given fluid flow is given as,
Re= ρVD
μ
ρ−density , μ−viscosity of fluid flow ,
D− pipe diameter V −pip e' s average velocity
The viscous shears constitute the laminar flow, and it is observed that the fluid moves in
discrete layers. The shear-stress is administered by the law of viscosity such that,

τ (shear stress)=μ du
dy
In such a flow, the fluid demonstrates its viscous nature and some energy is lost as a result of
friction due to the shear stress acting on the walls. The shear stress varies with a velocity of flow
as well as with Reynold’s number. The flow is considered to take place in distinct concentric
series without overlapping.
Figure 5 Laminar flow as a series of concentric cylinders
The shearing forces are equal to the pressure forces,
τ ( 2 πrL )=∆ P∗Area ¿
τ =∆ P∗π r2
2 πrL =∆ P ( r
2 L )
τ =∆ P ( r
2 L )=μ du
dy
Pressure tends to drop throughout the length of the pipe during fluid transmission, and it
can be defined using the Hagen-Poiseuille expression as,
∆ P ( r
2 L )=μ du
dy → du
dr =∆ P ( r
L . 1
2 μ )
According to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, the discharge rate is given as,
Q= ∆ P
L ( π D4
128 μ )
pressure drop=∆ P
∆ P=8 μLQ
π R4
The pipe structure determines the fluid flow to a certain extent. The standard pipework
uses the round pipes. The flow is laminar when Reynold’s number is less than 2100, and it is

turbulent when Reynold’s number is greater than 4000. The flow that falls between the laminar
and turbulent flow is considered the transitional flow. The fluid applies pressure to the inner
walls of the pipe/ the pressure forces act perpendicular to the plane causing the hydrostatic
pressure. The pressure intensity on the different points of the pipe is given as,
P= F
A
It is, generally, assumed that the pressure exerted by the fluid while flowing is the same at all
points at equal height in the area occupied by the fluid. According to the Bernoulli’s equation,
Z1 ( pressure head )+ ( P1
γ ) +( V 1
2
2 g )=Z2+ ( P2
γ ) +( V 2
2
2 g )
The round pipes are used in various industrial hydraulic applications, and they tend to
convert the energy regarding the length equivalents. The ‘head’ refers to the system’s energy at
any point within a hydraulic system such as the pressure head, elevation head, and the velocity
head. In a practical system, the piping systems experience losses due to friction in the pipes and
minor losses associated with tees, elbows, and pipe gate valves. There are restrictions in the
systems caused by valves, changes in direction, changes in pipe size such that some areas have a
bottleneck scenario and some losses associated with fluid entering or leaving a pipe. It is possible
to state that the total minor losses are obtained as,
hm =∑ K ( V 2
2 g ) … K=loss coefficient
The sum of the elevation head and pressure head yields the hydraulic grade line. The total shear
stress is constant along the pipe and as a result, there is unvarying dilapidation of the overall
energy or head laterally through the pipeline. The friction factor as experienced in the turbulent
flow when flowing through a seamless pipe, was proposed by Blasius (1913), as,
λ=0.316 /R e0.25
The following chart demonstrates the relationship between different Reynold numbers and their
turbulence levels. It is the moody diagram,

The significance of the Reynold’s number
(i) Higher values of Reynold’s number tend to be associated with dense, fast, and long,
streamlined objects. The lower values are associated with slower and smaller fluid
components that have a very high surface to volume ratio.
(ii) The Reynold’s number is seen to reduce or lower when the velocity decreases.
Discuss the operational aspects of hydraulic machines
The hydraulic machines operate on the Bernoulli principle. An external force applied to
the system or the control mass tend to apply pressure on the fluid in hydraulic equipment. The
pressure is equally transmitted throughout the fluid and received on the walls and another end.
Hydropower is well served using the hydraulic machines such as turbines which generate turbo
power. The hydraulic machine is comprised of a reservoir that holds the fluid, with a pump to
force the fluid through the system, valves for flow control and an actuator that is a fluid energy
converter. It converts the fluid energy to the mechanical force for the system to perform some
work (Toro Technical Training, 2010). The hydraulic machines are based on Pascal's law that is
applied to confined liquid under pressure. Any pressure transmitted in such a liquid is felt in

equal measure in all the directions and on all the sides of the container. The pressure is used to
do work, for instance, in the illustration below, the ram is moved upwards,
The matching fluid parameter experiences compressible and incompressible power that
consumes the fluid machines such that,
Π=f (Q , ΔΡ : ρ)
For compressible power,
Π=T f = √Q
4
√ ∆ p
p
3
For incompressible power,
Π=T f = √ Q
4
√ gH 3
In a nutshell,

The hydraulic fluid used in the machines is used in power transmission using the pressure
and motion. It is used in signal transmission for the control systems. The fluid lubricates the
systems as a lot of motion is involved. Lubrication eliminates the wear and tear of the equipment
as a result of the friction forces. The heat transport of particles protects surfaces from corrosion
and attacks from chemical substances.
Apply dimensional analysis to fluid flow. Evaluate the use of dimensionless analysis using
the Buckingham Pi Theorem for a given industrial application.
In fluid flow, the dimensional analysis seeks to identify the variables in the physical phenomena.
It correlates them with other constant system parameters to develop a group of dimensionless
groups (MIT, 2013). The dimensional analysis tends to result in non-dimensional parameters. An
equation is formed for all the variable in the dimensionally homogenous expression, and the
variables are reduced to find independent dimensionless products which are required to describe
the variable.
y=f ( x1 , x2 , … , xk )

Figure 6 The Buckingham Pi Theorem [source: The theory of sound, 1877]
CALCULATION SECTION
Part 1
The following illustration shows the implementation of the steam turbine in the power plant
describe in the question.
The sketch of the blocks that constitute the steam power generator or plant are as illustrated in
the following block diagram,

Steam is superheated at the entry to the turbine
The heating up of the steam at the exit of the steam generator section ensures that a
higher thermal efficiency is attained. The efficiency is obtained without any additional increase
in the working pressure. Unfortunately, the economies of scale are a tradeoff, in that, there are
additional costs incurred at the installation of the superheating section of the system. The merit is
that this is a one-time cost.
Sketch of T-S diagram for the plant
From the first law of thermodynamics on the conservation of energy,

q=0=h2−h1+ wt ¿
wt=h1−h2 [kJ /kg ]
The turbine power is given as,
¿ ms wt=ms ( h1−h2 ) [kW ]
The steam generator heat transfer is obtained as,
qa=h1−h4 [kJ /kg ]
Condenser as a thermodynamic system: heat removed and assumptions
The condenser steam is given as,
qc= ( h3 −h2 ) [ kJ
kg ]
The process involves cooling the steam which is the excess heat energy provided to cater for
losses in the system. The value of qc is bound to be negative in this case as h3 <h2.
Thermal efficiency of the plant: performance characteristics of the plant
η= W
Q1
=1− T 2
T 1
Solution
Using the steam tables,
h1=hf @ 30 bars =345.67 [ kJ
kg ]
v1 =vf @30 bars =0.0015457[m3 /kg]
w p ,∈¿= v1 ( P2− P1 ) ¿
¿ 0.0015457(3000−90)(kJ /kPa . m3)

¿ 4.497987 [ kJ
kg ]
h2 =h1 +wp ,∈ ¿=345.67+4.497987 =350.168 [ kJ
kg ]¿
P3=30 MPa
T3 =44000 C } h3=3423.1 [ kJ
kg ]
s3=6.8826 [ kJ
kg . K ]
P4 =0.9 kPa
S4=S3 } x4 =( s¿¿ 4−sf )/ sfg=(6.8826−0.8320)/7.0752=0.8552 ¿ h4=hf + x4 hfg=345.67+ ( 0.8552 ) ( 2357.5 ) =
The power output from the rate of steam in the cycle,
W T ,out =ms ( h3−h4 ) → 9 kg
s ∗( 3423.1−2267.5 ) [ kJ
kg ] =10400.4 [ kJ
s ]
The rates of heat addition and rejection at the condenser,
Q¿=ms ( h3−h2 )=9 kg/s∗(3423.1−350.168)=27656.388 kW
Q¿=ms ( h4 −h1 ) =9 kg / s∗(2267.5−345.67)=17296.47 kW
The thermal efficiency is given as,
η= W
Q1
=1− ( Qout
Q¿ )=1−( 17296.47
27656.388 ) =0.37459 ≅ 37.46 %
Part 2
Gas turbine and steam turbine plants are used in generating electricity. The steam turbine plant is
used as modified Rankine cycle.
The principles of operation of gas turbine plants.
The Gas turbines are comprised of turbo machines that are comprised of a myriad of parts. The
gas turbine is illustrated as shown below,

Rankine cycle over Carnot cycle in steam power plants.
The Carnot cycle denotes an idea situation and states that it is impossible for an engine or
thermodynamic system to convert all the heat energy released by combustion into mechanical
energy.
Modifications on the basic Rankine cycle to improve overall efficiency.
There is a new model of the Rankine cycle known as the ROC which uses organic fluids instead
of water as a thermodynamic fluid. It is implemented in relatively small to medium steam power
plants. The systems are powered by solar energy or recovered waste matter. Alternatively, one

can use the Brayton and Rankine Cycle together in the analysis of the gas turbines and the steam
turbines.
Usually, the simple Rankine cycle, tends to provide for the heat additions in the steam generator
over a wide range of fluid temperatures making it simple to reheat the cycles but the efficiency in
this case tends to be lower than for the Carnot cycle. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be
improved by introducing an intermediate reheating of the working fluid before it enters the steam
generator.
REFERENCES
Barrow, G., n.d. Thermodynamics should be built on energy-not on heat and work.
J.Chem.Educ, 65(2), pp. 122-125.
Edmister, W. C., 2005. Applications of Thermodynamics to the process industries. Journal of
Chemistry Education, 22(1), p. 13.
Eric Hendriks*†, G. M. K. et al., 2010. Industrial Requirements for Thermodynamics and
Transport Properties. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 49(22), pp. 11131-11141.
Jones, R. T., 2007. Thermodynamics and its applications-an overview. [Online]
Available at: http://www.mintek.co.za/Pyromet/Files/1997JonesThermo.pdf
José, R. S.-M., 2012. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics Applied to Thermal Power Plants.
[Online]
Available at:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/93d7/08fcbd9effb4da20115c76edd0bda5915b95.pdf
MIT, 2013. The Buckingham Pi Theorem in Dimensional Analysis. [Online]
Available at: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-25-advanced-fluid-
mechanics-fall-2013/dimensional-analysis/MIT2_25F13_The_Buckingham.pdf
Powers, J., 2018. The first law of Thermodynamics. [Online]
Available at: https://www3.nd.edu/~powers/ame.20231/notes.pdf

Sullivan, 2013. Control Volume Analysis using Energy. [Online]
Available at: https://users.wpi.edu/~sullivan/ES3001/Lectures/Chapter_4/ch04b-jms2013.pdf
Toro Technical Training, 2010. Hydraulics: Circuits, components, Schematics, Hydrostatic
Drives and Test Equipment. [Online]
Available at: http://www.dphu.org/uploads/attachements/books/books_2996_0.pdf