Ways to Industrialize Cement Production from Bauxite Residue in Australia

This thesis focuses on analyzing ways to industrialize cement production using bauxite residue (BR) in Australia. It explores the impact on cement quality, durability, and environmental sustainability. The research methodology includes a qualitative analysis of secondary data through systematic literature review.

THESIS
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ABSTRACT
Introduction: Bauxite reside is a highly alkaline waste product which is produced as wastage of
by product during extraction of aluminium ore. It is produced in tonnes and has a negative
impact upon environment and can result in increasing environment pollution. BR can be used as
a raw material in production of cement in such a manner that can increasing quality, durability of
cement and can also help in production of environmentally sustainable cement. The main
purpose of this thesis is- to analyse ways in which cement production made from BR can be
industrialized in Australia.
Research methodology: It is a qualitative type of research in which Secondary data had been
collected by the researcher from earlier credited research reports and mass media regarding the
use of BR in the production of cement. For analysis of this secondary data, Systematic literature
review analysis method had been chosen so that main research questions can be answered in a
proper and effective manner.
This research had successfully answered all the main research questions and has also helped in
understand ways in which Bauxite residue can be used for production of cement and ways in
which it can be industrialized in Australia.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................2
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................5
Research Background..................................................................................................................5
Research questions, Research Aim and research objectives.......................................................5
Significance or justification of research......................................................................................6
Outline of thesis or dissertation...................................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................9
Introduction..................................................................................................................................9
Theme 1: Disposal of Bauxite residue.........................................................................................9
Theme 2: characteristics of bauxite residue and ways in which bauxite residue can be used in
production of cement.................................................................................................................10
Theme 3: Bauxite Residue a viable product or not....................................................................11
Theme 4: Importance of Bauxite residue affect cement quality................................................12
Theme 5: Drivers and barriers in reuse of BR in cement production........................................13
Theme 6: Recommended ways though which barriers to adoption of BR in cement production
can overcome.............................................................................................................................14
Summary....................................................................................................................................15
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................16
Overview....................................................................................................................................16
Research type.............................................................................................................................16
Data Collection method.............................................................................................................16
Research design.........................................................................................................................17
List of key words used in literature review...............................................................................18
Literature search strategy...........................................................................................................18
Research Approach....................................................................................................................19
Data Analysis.............................................................................................................................19
Research Limitations.................................................................................................................20
Ethical Considerations...............................................................................................................20
CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION................................................................................................21
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CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS........................................................................................................26
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................28
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................28
Scope for further research..........................................................................................................29
REREFENCES..............................................................................................................................31
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Research Background
Bauxite Residue is a highly alkaline waste product which is basically produced due to production
of aluminium ore. It is one of the largest industrial by- product which is been produced in tonnes
in this industry (Zhu and et al., 2018). It has become a common practise so that provision of safe
storage can be provided, its social and environmental impact can be reduced. It is important for
industries to focus upon management of this Bauxite Residue because it is not only costly to
dispose of Bauxite Residue (BR) but it can also increase environment pollution. This material is
produced in in large quantity globally, even in Australia it is produced in approximately 77
million tonnes annually (Cusack and et al., 2019). Today various kinds of advance technologies
has been developed that ca not only help in resolving BR disposal problem so that its negative
impact upon environment can be reduced. So that not only cost associated with it can be
maintained but can also result in reduction of pollution created by this Bauxite Residue (Kong
and et al., 2017). Various kinds of research have taken place in this field that clearly helps in
explaining that it is used for bricks, glass ceramics as well as in road beds but in Australia it is
not used much at industrial scale for cement production because in Australia Ground Granulated
Blast furnace slag is used more instead of cement especially for concrete. So, this research will
focus upon ways in which cement production made from BR can be industrialized in Australia.
Research questions, Research Aim and research objectives
Research Aim
To analyse ways in which cement production made from BR can be industrialized in
Australia.
Research Objectives
Main objectives of this thesis are as follows:
 Identify possible ways in which bauxite residue can be used in production of cement for
fulfilment of cement demand.
 Determine whether Bauxite Residue provide structurally viable product or not
 access ways in which application of bauxite residue affect cement quality.
 Identify drivers and barriers in reuse of BR in cement production.
 Recommend ways though which barriers to adoption of BR in cement production can
overcome.
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Research Questions
Main research question of this thesis study is:
 How the application of Bauxite residue in the production of cement can reduce or eliminate
the costly and harmful disposal issues?
 How bauxite residue can be used on commercial scale for cement production in Australia?
Scope of the research
This study mainly focuses upon Aluminium ore production in industries in Australia that
leaves highly alkaline waste material known as Bauxite residue or BR which is a harmful
material which is produced in tonnes in Australia. Due to this it becomes important to focus upon
safe disposal of BR so that its harmful effects can be reduced but this disposal of BR is
extremely costly (Wang and et al., 2018). So due to this, this research study has focused upon
identifying ways in which possible ways in which bauxite residue can be used in production
of cement and ways in which cement production made from BR can be industrialized.
Significance or justification of research
Bauxite residue is a highly alkaline waste material which is produced due to production of
aluminium ore (Xue and et al., 2019). It is harmful and a toxic material which is mainly
disposed-off. From economic point of view as well it is extremely costly to dispose of BR in a
safe and secure manner. Using this Bauxite residue in production of other materials can not only
help in reducing wastage but can also help in recuing cost of disposing this harmful material
(Xue and et al., 2019). It has also been observed that significance of applications of Bauxite
residue is also ignored especially for industrial use. It is important to focus upon using Bauxite
residue for some useful purposes as it will help in resolving various kinds of problems associated
with this wastage such as cost of disposing BR can be reduced, environmental pollution can also
be reduced.
This research topic is worthy and important to be focused upon because if Bauxite residue
is not disposed of in a proper manner then it can create environment pollution. Due to its large
volume of, high alkalinity, and storage complications risk to environment increases. Significance
of use of Bauxite residue in production of cement is important to be focused upon so that
environment pollution can be reduced and usage of this harmful waste material can also be
increased.
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Outline of thesis or dissertation
This thesis has five main chapters: First chapter is introduction in which research topic has
been introduced, second chapter is literature review in which review of secondary data collected
has been don. Third is research methodology chapter in which all the methods chosen and used
within whole research process has been discussed. Next chapter is analysis of results and
findings chapter in which analysis of secondary data collected for research has been analysed.
Last is conclusion chapter in which conclusion of whole research study has been focused upon
that can help in answering main research questions and achieving main objectives of the
research. All the main chapters of this thesis have been briefly outlined below in a proper and
appropriate manner:
Chapter One: Introduction
This chapter focuses upon introducing research area in which this research project will be
focusing upon. In this chapter main aim and objectives of the research study are identified and
main research question which is required to be answered is also focused upon. This chapter helps
the researcher in outlining main importance of the research and reason because of which this
research topic is being focused upon.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter focuses upon reviewing secondary data collected from different resources
such as Books, Journals, articles, reports, online websites, and many other sources. Review of
secondary data helps the researcher in developing a base for the research so that main objectives
of this research can be achieved and main research question can be answered in a proper and
appropriate manner.
Chapter Three: Research Methodology
In this chapter all the methods that are applied and adhered throughout the research study
has been focused upon. This chapter also provides justification of all the methods chosen for
achievement of research objectives. Other than this method using which data has been collected
for this research and method using which data will be analysed has also been explained and
justification for the same has also been applied. This chapter can help the reader to understand
reason because of which chosen method are appropriate and most suitable for the research.
Chapter Four: Analysis of Results and Findings
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In this chapter analysis of data collected though literature review has been done, other
than this discussion of results and findings gathered from analysis of secondary data has also
been focused upon in this chapter. It is one of the main and important chapter of this thesis as it
will help in achieving all the main objectives of the research and will also help in answering
main research question of this thesis.
Chapter Five: Conclusion and recommendations
This chapter focuses upon conclusion that has been gained from all the analysis of
secondary data and whole research study. It is another important chapter of whole research study
that helps in analysing whether research question has been answered properly or not and whether
it is sufficient for achieving main research aim and objectives or not. Other than this in this
chapter need for future research in the same research area is also identified in a proper and
appropriate manner.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Literature review is a kind of narrative study that helps the researcher in reviewing
secondary data like research articles. In this literature review, secondary data related to main
research topic i.e. “ways in which production of cement made from bauxite residue can be
industrialized” has been focused upon. It will not only focus upon collection of latest secondary
data related to the topic but will also help in identifying gaps within current literature and will
help in answering research questions in a proper manner. Following are the main themes that
have been identified though literature review:
Theme 1: Disposal of Bauxite residue
According to the view of Zhu and et al., (2018) Disposal of bauxite residue was always
one of the major issue or concern to be focused upon because it requires large area for disposal
of BR. Not only this, Bauxite residue can harmful for surrounding water, soil and air. Bauxite
residue can be disposed in three different ways that are: first is through slurry disposal, second is
though dry mud disposal and third is though solar drying. Slurry disposal technique for disposal
of bauxite residue is pumped from mud washing circuit. Dry mud stacking method is also used
for disposal of bauxite residue. It is one of the most commonly used methods which is used for
its disposal. Last process of disposal of bauxite residue is though solar drying process in which
bauxite tailing in Jamaica is done and then stacked at one place.
In addition to this, Ren and et al., (2018) explains that, before disposing of bauxite residue first
of all it is processed. Caustic soda is used as a key input so that while extraction process,
maximum possible bauxite residue can be reused. Usage of caustic soda as an input helps in
producing lower level of residue. Due to this this, pre-processing of Bauxite residue is important
and is mostly used in this industry (Zhu and et al., 2018). After processing of Bauxite residue,
then it is transported. If solid content in the residue is more than 75 percent, then in such case a
cake that can be handled is obtained is either trucked or put- upon conveyer belt. If moisture
within the residue content is higher or above 28 percent in such case vibration mechanism is
used. After processing and transportation, it is disposed. Long term implication of disposing BR
is that it can contaminate waste cancan make is harmful for drinking, make soil in suitable for
use. If bauxite residue is produced in a very small amount, then in such case this residue is used
in one or the other form. But form of disposal or method chosen for its storage or disposal
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depends upon following factors such as: nature of residue, presence of local features such as
mines et., availability of land and many more. These factors not only help in determining
appropriate process that can be used for disposal of BR but it also helps in identifying ways in
which this, residue can be used for future use. There are many different kinds of environmental
standards that have been set that not only helps in long term sustainability of soil condition,
reduce environment pollution, reduce chances of water pollution etc. (Cole and Trinh, 2017). All
the companies are required to ensure and comply with bauxite residue disposal area terms and
condition, and also comply with main environmental standards so that damage to environment
can be reduced. Not only while disposing off or storing this residue it is important for
organizations to continuously monitor disposal and storage process in order to maintain integrity
of the process with other factors.
Theme 2: characteristics of bauxite residue and ways in which bauxite residue can be used in
production of cement
As per the view of Kong and et al., (2017) Bauxite residue can be used for various kinds
of purposes. One of its main use is production of cement. It can be used in production of cement
in many different ways. it can be used as a raw material in Portland cement, can be used in
mortar or concrete mix or many other certain types of special cement. First step for using this
residue in cement production is to get to know its chemical composition so that its characteristics
can be known. In order to use Bauxite residue in production of cement there are various kinds of
oxides that are required to be present within bauxite residue such as aluminium, iron, calcium
and silicon. If organizations want to produce cement successfully then it is important to carefully
control silicon, calcium, iron and aluminium. They are also required to focus upon properties of
each of these elements at each stage of production. Ration and form in which these elements are
found in bauxite residue plays a vital role in production of cement from this residue. Typically
amount in which these components are present in bauxite residue are fixed such as
Component Typical range (wt%)
Fe2O3 5 – 60
Al2O3 5 – 30
TiO2 0.3 – 15
CaO 2 – 14
SiO2 3 – 50
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Na2O 1 – 10
Other than this, it has further been explained by Xue and et al., (2020) that there are many
other varieties of components that are present in bauxite residue but in lower level. Majorly these
components are: copper, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, gallium, chromium, magnesium, lead
nickel, mercury and many other elements including some rare metals of thew earth. There are
three important non- metallic elements as well that are present in bauxite residue like carbon,
phosphorus and sulphur. Most of the minerals present within it are quite complex and because of
this reason it becomes important to study presence of elements within it, their form and ration in
which they are present so that production of cement can be done accordingly.
According to Ghalehnovi and et al., (2019) Bauxite residue is used for production of
different kinds of cements. Its usage in different kinds of cement has always been a subject of
research. For usage of BR in production of cement it has to go though various kinds of processes.
At each step its characteristics are required to be monitored continuously. But mostly it is used as
a raw material for production of special cement, Portland cement, ceramics. Its characteristics
and components present within it helps in determining quality and strength of cement produced
from it. Due to this it becomes important for organizations to adopt techniques for its processing
in such a manner that it is suitable for components present within it so that overall strength and
quality of cement produced is not compromised.
Theme 3: Bauxite Residue a viable product or not
According to the view of Balomenos and et al., (2018) viable products are those products
that have enough and sufficient features for satisfying customers’ needs and can provide
feedback for future product development. It is an alternative viable product that can be used
within industries. It can help in provision of sustainability in terms of its durability and
environment sustainability (Xue and et al., 2019). But it cannot provide financial viability.
Whenever bauxite residue comes into use it is important to use CRM and base elements
extraction so that a financially viable process can be achieved. There are very fewer number of
studies available in which viability of Bauxite residue has been discussed. Disposal cost of
bauxite reside and usability of reusable technology helps in increasing feasibility of BR.
Balomenos and et al., (2018) further says that, Viable logistics in waste transportation and lower
aggregate value of BR is its one of the main limitations. This impacts management of BR waste.
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It is important for organizations to adopt viable alternatives for management of waste. Usage of
autochthonous alkaliphilic microorganisms in Bauxite residue is one of the most commonly used
viable alternative. Adoption of these alternatives can help in enhancement of cost- effectiveness
of transport of bauxite residue raw materials and final product made from its processing.
Theme 4: Importance of Bauxite residue affect cement quality
According to the view of Nikbin and et al., (2018) Bauxite residue is one of the most
appropriate raw material that can be used for production of cement in one way or the other.
Usage of this residue in cement production has shown many advantages, some of them are: it
helps in lowering consumption of other raw materials like limestone, iron powder. Then it also
helps in improving yield of kiln and lastly it helps in lowering carbon dioxide emission which is
a kind of positive initiative towards reduction of environment pollution. As explained by
Balomenos and et al., (2018) there are various kinds of elements that are present within bauxite
residue and different quantity. Presence of these elements helps in production of cement, reduce
requirement of other raw materials. Some of the most important elements that are required in
production of cement like iron and alumina can be directly provided by Bauxite residue. It not
only helps in producing cement within less input requirement but also helps in maintaining high
quality of cement and lower emission of carbon dioxide. BR usage in production of cement has
helped in bringing various kinds of changes in this industry. It can be used for industrial
purposes as it is a positive step towards sustainability. Quality of cement produced by Bauxite
residue can vary from medium to high because of presence of different composition of elements
in different quantity. So due to this reason it is important to focus upon monitoring and checking
presence of all the elements at each step of cement production so that overall quality of cement is
not degraded and higher quality is maintained.
As per the view of Arino Montoya and et al., (2017) it has been found that sage of cement
in last few years has increased drastically. In past 10 years usage of cement in construction
industry has just doubled up due to which environment pollution is also increasing. As a result of
this, it has become important for organizations to focus upon using Bauxite residue in production
of cement so that this environment pollution can be used and high quality of cement can be
produced. For this it is important to understand production of Bauxite residue as BR produced
from different products has different chemical composition. Especially bauxite residue produced
from Sinter or Bayer- Sinter extraction route has completely different composition as compared
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to BR that is produced from convectional Bayer Alumina plant. Due to which whenever
organizations focuses upon usage of Bauxite residue in cement production they need to focus
upon using BR that is high in iron, have lower sodium content and can meet high standard of
cement. If iron content in BR is lower and sodium content is higher then in such case quality of
cement will get impacted directly. Arino Montoya and et al., (2017) further explains that, There
are many other elements whose presence within BR will impact quality of cement negative so at
each step of cement production continuous monitoring of presence of elements in Bauxite
residue and their chemical composition as while production many times chemical composition of
BR also changes.
Theme 5: Drivers and barriers in reuse of BR in cement production
As per the view of Santini and et al., (2016) cement production plants consider BR as a
cheapest source of iron and alumina raw materials but many of them do not prefer using it for
production as they think that bulk transport of BR is feasible or not. This is majorly because
whoever transports BR to cement production plant should have licence of performing waste
transport operations. Not only this transporting Br though road transport is not economically
viable as well. So it can be said that there are various kinds of barriers because of which usage of
BR in production of cement is least preferred. There are four main types of barriers that can
impact reuse of BR in production of cement, that are: technical barriers, legislative barriers,
financial barrier and social barrier. Technical barrier is the main kind of barrier because there are
many elements or contents that are present within bauxite residue that are useless or are not
crucial for cement production such as Cr content, Soda content, moisture etc. It is important to
remove these content or elements because presence of these content can impact quality and
purity of cement which is produced from BR. Removal of these content are not economically
viable as well. Another barrier is legislative barrier. Usage of BR for cement production is a
complex process that requires special permissions from all the parties who are involved in this
production process. These special permits are required because there many different kinds of
hazardous and non- hazardous elements present bauxite residue due to this it’s monitoring and
special permission are required. If BR transport is required t be done from cross border then it
can become a bit more complicated. However, most of the rules and regulations present are only
for red mud Bauxite residue there is not procedure or classification for dry Bauxite residue.
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In addition to this, barriers of reuse of BR in production of cement have further been
explained by another researcher. Balomenos and et al., (2018) elaborates that, financial barrier is
one of the most important barrier because of which reuse of BR for cement production becomes
difficult because most of the cement production plants prefer using raw materials that are
economically feasible and whose usage in production is also feasible financially. In financial
barrier, logistics is the main important key barrier. Cement production plan only prefer using BR
as an alternative option of iron and alumina source only if it’s a cheaper alternative because
mostly logistics of transport of BR is costly as a result production plant of cement do not prefer
using BR at industrial scale despite of the fact that it is a sustainable option for production of
cement. Last issue that work as a barrier in production of cement is social barrier. Disposal or
handling o bauxite residue is a bigger issue as many times local communities protest against
cement plant because most of the plants treat their waste in their backyard that causes soil, water
and environment pollution. Usage of BR requires appropriate handling otherwise it can create
protest by local societies. It is extremely important for organizations to focus upon safe disposal
of BR so that its harmful effects upon environment can be reduced. But most of the disposal
options are a bit costly to be applied for disposal and storage of BR. Balomenos and et al.,
(2018) also says that other than these barriers measurement of radioactivity is another barrier
because of which BR reuse is least preferred because calculating radioactivity value of elements
such as Bi, Ac, Ra etc. Present in Bauxite residue is important to be measured otherwise it can
become one of the biggest challenge in cement production.
Theme 6: Recommended ways though which barriers to adoption of BR in cement production
can overcome
According to the view of Cusack and et al., (2019) there are various kinds of strategies
that can be used for overcoming barriers of reuse of bauxite residue. Focusing upon locating
plant close to bauxite mines is one of the cheapest option that can be used for BR as a raw
material. This also helps in reducing transportation cost of bauxite residue. This will not only
help in overcoming transportation and financial barrier but it will also help in overcoming
handing or disposal or storage of bauxite residue barrier as well. It will also become easily for
cement production plants to get all the required permissions easily. Another strategy is to lower
alkalinity level of Bauxite residue as it will help in making handling, processing and
transportation cost of BR. This strategy is not only effective in reduction of financial cost but it
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also helps in filtering out BR so that it can be safely stored, processed and used for cement
production. Another way of increasing usage of BR in cement production is by increasing
awareness about its potential benefits to cement production plants so that they can understand
different kinds of benefits provided by BR and ways in which it can help in improving quality of
cement sustainably. High quality of sustainable cement can help in enhancing confidence level of
consumer within the organization. Other than this, organizations can also focus upon LCA
process development methodology as this methodology helps in assessing environmental impact
related to all the life- cycle stages of commercial product. This will help cement production
plants to assess radioactive value of all the components of BR so that their environmental impact
can also be assessed.
Summary
After reviewing secondary data collected from different sources in literature review it has
been summarized that Bauxite residue is one of the most appropriate and viable option that can
be used for production of cement. Usage of BR in production of cement can not only help in
reducing emission of carbon dioxide but can also help in enhancement of overall quality of
cement. It has also been identified that there are many different ways in which organizations can
use Bauxite residue in production of cement. Other than this it was also identified that there are
various kinds of issues or drivers that can work as a barrier in usage of BR as a raw material in
production of cement. But while reviewing secondary data for literature review it was identified
that there are limited amount of information available in relation to usage of BR in Australia. So
this research will aim in identifying ways in which cement production made from BR can be
industrialized in Australia.
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Overview
Research methods chosen for this study are secondary in which secondary data for
qualitative nature study will be collected. With the help of secondary data analyses methods,
main research question of identifying ways in which cement production made from BR can be
industrialized in Australia will be answered. This research methodology section will provide
justification of all the chosen methods and strategies that will be used for reaching to the
conclusion and answering main research questions in a much better and appropriate manner.
Research type
It is extremely important to select type of research which is required to be carried out for
answering main research question in a proper and appropriate manner. Research type also helps
in selection of other research methods (Hammarberg, Kirkman and de Lacey, 2016). Selection of
research type completely depends upon research problem which is required to be focused upon.
There are three main types of research: qualitative, quantitative and mixed research type.
Quantitative research type focuses upon providing description of research problem quantitatively
using numbers (Castleberry and Nolen, 2018). Data collected in this research type is numerical
data. Whereas, Qualitative research type focuses upon describing a research problem
theoretically, using words or any other kind of non- numerical data. In order to find solution of
research problem mathematical techniques are not used. It is important for researcher to select
research type correctly because on the basis of research type further, data collection method,
analysis method, research design and many other methods as per the suitability of the research
are chosen. Both the research types use facts and information in a different manner. For this
research, researcher has laid emphasis upon qualitative research type because there is lots of
secondary data available that can help the researcher in building a base for the research and
answering the main research question in an appropriate manner. Qualitative research type has
also been adopted by researcher because it will help the researcher in providing a clear view of
reasons because of which BR is not used large scale in Australian cement production industry.
Data Collection method
There are two different kinds of data collection methods: primary data collection method
and secondary data collection methods. As per the need and requirement of research these data
collection methods are chosen for study. There are two important types of data and each of them
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has different methods of data collection: primary and secondary data collection methods.
Secondary data is a kind of data that has been published already and can be collected from
sources such as books, newspapers, articles, research papers, journals etc. Secondary data can be
collected for any kind of research regardless of nature of the study (Castleberry and Nolen,
2018). This type of data help the researcher in building a base for the research and also helps in
increasing reliability and validity of the research. Another type of data is primary data. It is a
kind of data which is collected by the researcher for the first time. This type of data can be
collected from different methods such as though interview, survey, observation, questionnaire
and many more. For this research secondary data collection methods has been chosen in which in
which data will be collected from past research papers, journals and articles focusing upon the
research topic. For this research secondary data collection method has been chosen because it
will help the researcher in collecting required valid and reliable data for answering the main
research question in a proper manner.
Research design
Design of a research is a kind of a procedure that helps the researcher in collection of
data and analysing it for specific research problem to be answered. It is important for the
researcher to adopt an appropriate research design so that data for the study can be collected in a
systematic order. There are three main types of research designs: exploratory, descriptive and
conclusive research design. As the name suggest exploratory research design helps in exploration
of specific aspects of the research area. It basically helps in generation of general insight of the
situation (Wagner, Kawulich and Garner, 2019). Whereas, descriptive research design is used for
describing main elements and variables of research problem. But casual research is used for
studying cause an effect relationship of the research in a much better and appropriate manner.
For this research, research has focused upon using exploratory research design method. This
method was selected by the researcher as it is a qualitative study in which secondary data
analysis is being done so due to this exploratory research design has been chosen as this study
design is only used for qualitative studies and thus design will help the researcher in exploring
research area in a proper manner so that research questions can be answered in a proper and
effective manner.
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List of key words used in literature review
There are various kinds of key words that were used for selection of appropriate
secondary research papers, articles etc. Some of the min key words used for literature search are:
Bauxite Residue, Cement production, raw material, viable product, barriers, and strategies. With
the help of Boolean search operations, combinations of key words were used for selection of
appropriate literature of secondary data collection and analysis.
Literature search strategy
It is important to define literature search strategy used for searching appropriate research
papers, articles, journal papers for searching secondary data sources that re appropriate for
conducting a systematic literature review. Search strategy for literature in this study has been
done in following step.
 First step is to identify key terms on the basis of which research papers, articles, journal
papers for the study are identified (Safdar and et al., 2016). Main key terms used for
searching secondary studies for this research paper has been identified above.
 Second step is to identify online and offline pool/ libraries or databases from where research
papers, articles, journal papers can be identified. For this study majorly online library was
used for collection of secondary data. In this, Google Scholar was used as an online library or
database for searching of appropriate data sources for secondary data collection and analysis.
 Third step is to identify inclusion and exclusion strategies with the help of which evaluation
of appropriate studies to be includes for the research study can be identified (Stoffer and et
al., 2016). Inclusion and exclusion criteria defined helps in identifying appropriate secondary
data so that quality of the data collected is not compromised.
 Last step is to filter selected secondary data according to their year of publications. This is
because for secondary data analysis mostly last five years data should only be preferred.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for selection of studies have been identified below:
Inclusion criteria: All the selected research papers should be in English language. Selected
papers should consist of at least 2 or more than 2 key words. Selected research papers, articles
and Journals should not be more than 5 years old. Only qualitative studies have been selected for
this dissertation
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Exclusion criteria: All the studies that were older than 5 years were excluded; papers published
in language other than English were also excluded. Papers that have incomplete data or consist of
quantitative data were also excluded.
Research Approach
Research approach is a kind of procedure or a plan of conducting research. It includes
broad steps though which data has been collected and is analysed. There are two main types of
research approaches that are mainly used within research studies: first is deductive and second is
inductive research approach (Mendes and et al., 2019). Deductive is a kind of approach in which
hypothesis based upon existing theories is developed and then on the basis of developed
hypothesis a research strategy is designed so that developed hypothesis can be tested. It is
majorly used in quantitative studies. Another approach is inductive research approach in which
theories and observation are proposed so that patters can be developed on the basis of which
research questions can be answered. For this research, researcher has focused upon using
inductive research approach has been used as this approach is suitable for qualitative research
type and also helps in answering research question in a proper manner. This approach also helps
in development of a proper approach that helps in selection of methods such as data type,
analysis methods, design etc. though which required aim can be achieved.
Data Analysis
A process though which data can be cleaned, transformed and modelled for discovering
new information for decision making, answering research questions, achieving main aim of the
research study and for informing conclusion is known as data analysis. It is an important part of a
research study as it helps the researcher in identifying or extracting important and relevant data
or information that can help then in answering main research question in a proper manner.
Without proper data analysis method, it can become a bit difficult for research to achieve main
aim and objective the study (Stevenson and Cole, 2018). There are two main types of data
analysis methods, that are thematic and statistical data analysis method. Thematic data analysis
method is used for quantitative studies in which common themes are identified from collected
data that has same meaning, idea or pattern. It can be used for both primary and secondary data.
It is mostly used in qualitative studies in which knowledge, experience and values are required to
be identified about a particular research topic. However, statistical data analysis is a method
which is used for analysis of numeric data with the help of statistical or mathematical methods or
19

formulas. This method is mostly used for quantitative research studies that involve descriptive
numerical data. This method is mostly used for turning raw numbers into a meaning full data by
finding evidence to supporting or rejecting hypothesis formed are earlier stage of the research
study. For this research in thematic data analysis, systematic literature review will be conducted
in which review of secondary data collected from past researches conducted in this area will be
done. Systematic literature review is one of the most appropriate analysis methods that can be
used for analysis of secondary data that has been collected for this research for answering main
research questions in a proper and appropriate manner.
Research Limitations
There were various kinds of limitations that were faced by the researcher while
completing this research study for achievement of min aim and objectives of tis research. Some
of the main limitations faced by researcher while conducting this thesis study are as follows: One
of the main limitations faced by the researcher was in terms of collection of data. Researcher had
faced lots of trouble in terms of accessing appropriate and required data. Researcher was not able
to access required data from some important websites. Not only this, it was a bit difficult for
researcher to infilter data from a greater size of secondary data. Another limitation faced by
researcher was in terms of generalizing the research. As this research focuses upon ways in
which cement production made from BR can be industrialized in Australia. So it cannot be
generalized as it only focuses upon use of BR in Australia.
Ethical Considerations
Some of the main ethical consideration adhered by the researcher in this research were: All
the data collected from different sources were cited and proper referencing of the data used was
done. All the secondary data were collected from reliable sources and were cited properly. All
the work of other authors used in this dissertation was acknowledged and referenced using
Harvard style referencing. Use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language was
also avoided in the research.
20

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION
Introduction
Analysis of results and findings chapter had focused upon analysing collected secondary
data for answering main research questions and had also helped researcher in identifying gaps in
the research so that future research can be carried out.
Overview of Bauxite residue and its disposal
Bauxite residue is kind of alumina refinery residue or a highly alkaline waste product
which is mainly generated from industries that produce alumina (Wu and et al., 2020). This
waste product is composed of various kinds of components but mainly it is composed of iron
oxide. According to literature review, Disposal of Bauxite residue has always been one of the
major problems because of many different kinds of reasons (Arino Montoya and et al., 2017).
This is majorly because bauxite residue requires large area for its disposal. It is also harmful and
dangerous for surrounding air, water and soil and it can contaminate of all the three sources. It is
basically a side product which is product with production of alumina. Most of the industries
dispose this residue irresponsibly and dispose it in sea or any unused land area. It is toxic and
dangerous for both land and water bodies (Balomenos and et al., 2018). Disposing it in water
bodies or land can create ecological and marine disbalance. Industries wo are responsible and has
taken a positive initiative towards environment do not dump or dispose bauxite residue directly
into land. They adopt different kinds of methods or process though which this BR residue is
disposed. These disposable processes not only help in disposing it in a proper manner but also
helps in using in such manner that it can further be reused for different purposes.
Process of disposing Bauxite residue
There are many different kinds of methods or processes that can be used for disposing
Bauxite residue in a proper and appropriate manner. There are three different ways or processes
though which BR is disposed (Wu and et al., 2020). Method chosen for disposing BR depends
upon type of Bauxite residue which is required to be disposed. Type type of process is slurry
disposable technique in which BR is pumped from mud washing circuit. It is disposed in many
different ways out of which lagooning is a common method in which it is pumped into a land-
based pond (Cassell, Cunliffe and Grandy, eds., 2017). Other ways of disposing it are: dry
disposal in which residue is washed and filled with dry waste, mud stacking is a way in which
residue is thickened into a high- density slurry. It depends upon type of residue and surrounding
21

in which this it is required to be disposed. Other than lagooning, solar drying is another process
though which bauxite residue is disposed in whish tailing of Bauxite in Jamaica is done so that it
can be stacked at one place. Both of these methods are commonly used by industries for disposal
of BR. According to literature review, before disposal of Bauxite residue, it is first of all
processed so that maximum of bauxite residue can be reused. For this process most of the
industries uses caustic soda so that maximum of it can be reused and lower amount of wastage
residue is produced (Castleberry and Nolen, 2018). This pre-processing is extremely important
for organizations to focus upon because it can not only help in reducing amount of residue
required to be disposed but it also helps in reducing its harmful effect because of environment,
ecological system and marine system can get impacted.
Bauxite residue characteristics
Bauxite residue has various kinds of elements within it but it dements upon type of
Bauxite reside that which element is present in what quantity (Kong and et al., 2017). Difference
in quantity of Bauxite helps in differentiating main characteristics of Bauxite residue because of
which its usage for different purposes can also vary (Cole and Trinh, 2017). According to the
literature review it is important understand and know characteristics of Bauxite residue as only
on the basis of its characteristics, it can be used for different purposes. One of the most common
purpose of Bauxite residue is using it in production of cement. Knowing characteristics of BR
can impact quality of products. Some of the main characteristics of bauxite residue that are
required in production of cement are: aluminium, iron, calcium and silicon. All the four type of
ores are important to be present within bauxite residue in order to produce good quality of
cement (Cusack and et al., 2019). Not only this these characteristics of Bauxite residue are
checked at every stage of cement production so that its overall quality is not compromised. With
presence of require ores their overall range is also checked as it can impact overall quality of
cement. There are other kinds of elements whose presence in Cement production in Bauxite
residue is also checked such as: arsenic, copper, beryllium, gallium, cadmium, magnesium,
chromium, lead nickel, mercury etc.
Type of Bauxite residue that can be used in production of cement
Bauxite residue can be used for cement production but it is important to focus upon type
of Bauxite residue that can be used for production of cement. But more precisely it can be said
that components that are present within bauxite residue are required to be focused upon because
22

it can impact overall quality of cement. There are many different kinds of cement that are
produced by using BR. In process of cement production with usage of BR, produced cement has
to go through various kinds of procedure (Kamitsou and et al., 2020). At each and every
procedure, characteristics of BR are checked in order to maintain overall quality of cement.
Bauxite reside is used as a main raw material in production of different kinds of cements like
special cement, Portland cement, ceramics etc. But most commonly it is used in production of
Portland cement (Evans, 2016). Checking components and characteristics of all the components
present within BR helps in enhancing and maintaining high quality and strength of the cement.
While producing Portland cement, it has to go through different procedures but within all of
those procedures, limestone decomposition is an unavoidable step in which while decomposition
geogenic CO2 gas is released. It helps in increasing alkaline activated ingredients which is quite
effective in producing high quality of Portland cement (Ghalehnovi and et al., 2019). It helps in
reducing negative environment impact of cement like reduces CO2 release etc. Bauxite residue
that consist of minerals, metallic and non- metallic components is best type of BR that can be
used for production of cement which is of high strength and quality.
Ways in which Bauxite residue affect overall quality of cement
Above literature review of previous studies have clearly explained that usage of BR in
production of cement can impact its overall quality in both positive and negative manner. It not
only helps in reducing usage of raw materials like limestone, iron powder but also helps in
enhancing overall quality of cement as well (Kim, 2019). BR usage in cement production helps
in lowering emission of carbon dioxide which further help in increasing stability and strength of
the cement in addition to this, it can also be said that it is a step forward in reducing
environmental pollution (Lyu and et al., 2020). There are two most important materials that are
required for production of high- quality cement that are: iron and alumina. Usage of BR can
directly help in providing both the materials for cement production. It is one of the most effective
way through which requitement of raw material for cement making is reduced without degrading
overall quality of cement (Kong and et al., 2017). But composition of different kinds of elements
within BR impacts level of quality of cement produced. Important elements required for making
cement should be monitored continuously at every step of production so that high quality of
cement is maintained and required elements like iron an alumina required composition level can
be maintained in BR (Xakalashe and Friedrich, 2018). Other than this, it has also been analysed
23

that bauxite reside produced from different material has different chemical composition that can
impact final product’s overall quality. Like chemical composition of BR produced from Sinter is
completely different from BR produced from Alumina plant. Due to this it becomes important to
focus upon type of BR which is being used as a raw material or cement production. So mostly in
order to maintain high quality of cement, BR that has high iron, low sodium is chosen. Rest other
type of Bauxite residues are not used for cement production.
Comparison of Bauxite residue and iron slag properties for cement production in terms of cost,
durability and other benefits
There are many other types of materials that can be used instead of BR for production of
high- quality cement which is not only durable but can be produced in lower cost with additional
benefits as well. Iron slang is one such by-product which is produced from iron making method.
This by-product is produced when iron is extracted from iron ore. This by-product of iron
extraction is majorly used by Australian cement production industry as a replacement of cement
for producing Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag. It is used as a replacement of cement
especially in concrete as it has high durability, stability and consistency. Both iron slang and BR
is used for different product productions (Verma and et al., 2017). Like iron slang is used for
production of Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag whereas BR is used for production of
cement. Both of them are good in their own ways as usage of iron slang can help in producing
Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag (GGBFS) that has approximately 30 percent of cement
properties and is available at cheap price. But BR is used for production of roper cement.
GGBFS slowly strengthen over time and provides even more strength that cement. But most of
the studies says that strength provided by Portland cement and GGBFS is same. In terms of cost
both of them help in production of low- cost material, in terms of durability GGBFS is more
durable and both of them are environmentally sustainable. It is one of the main reasons because
of which BR is not used in Australian cement industry or production of cement.
Ways to overcome barriers in adoption of Bauxite residue
In order to increase usage of Bauxite residue for cement production it is important to
overcome these barriers. There are various that can be used to overcome above specified barriers
in ap order and appropriate manner (Nikbin and et al., 2018). First way to overcome
transportation barrier and special permission barrier is locate cement production plant close to
Bauxite residue Mines. It is one of the most effective way of overcoming most of these barriers
24

because it will directly reduce requirement of special permission for transportation, dumping
barrier (Kim, 2019). Not only this it will further help in reducing overall cost associated with BR
use in cement production. When cement production plants are developed near BR mines then in
such case getting required permission becomes much easier. Another strategy though which
barrier associated with BR use in cement can be reduced is by focusing upon reducing alkalinity
level in BR (Ren and et al., 2018). It will not only help in making transportation easier but it will
also help in enhancing overall quality of BR that can be used for cement production. It will
further help in reducing overall cost associated with BR handing and storing. Other than this it
has also been identified that cement production sites can adopt LCA process development
method as this method will help in analysing radioactive value of all Bauxite residue components
so that their harmful impact on environment can also be identified.
25

CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS
Feasibility or viability of Bauxite residue
Bauxite reside is a viable product or raw material that can be used for production of
cement at commercial or industrial scale because of various reasons such as, it is cost effective,
durable, helps in producing high quality products that are environmentally sustainable. But
viability in terns of cost or financial expenditure completely demands upon form of Bauxite
residue (Hammarberg, Kirkman and de Lacey., 2016). But if proper element extraction process
or production process is followed then financial viability can be achieved (Ujaczki and et al.,
2018). However, viability of Bauxite residue cannot be discussed or confirmed in an accurate
manner this is majorly because very few numbers of studies have been carried out till now that
focuses or discusses viability of Bauxite residue. But transportation and cost viability of BR has
been discussed by various researchers. Transportation of BR is not viable or feasible at all. If
bauxite raw materials are transported from one place to production site then it can increase of
cost or expenditure associated with it. But adoption of some alternative methods can help in
enhancing feasibility or viability of Bauxite residue and can make it cost effective for
transportation because of which it can be used as a final raw material for production of cement in
a cost- effective manner (Kamitsou and et al., 2020). Usage of autochthonous alkaliphilic
microorganisms is one such alternative that can be used for enhancing feasibility of BR to be
used for production of cement for commercial use in industries.
Barriers and drives in usage of Bauxite residue
There is no doubt that BR is one of the cheapest, durable and sustainable material that
can be used for production of cement. But there are various kinds of barriers because of which
usage of BR in cement production in Australian industry is becoming difficult (Lyu and et al.,
2020). There are for different types of barriers because of which its usage for cement production
is becoming difficult (Evans, 2016). First type of barrier is technical barrier because it consists of
various kinds of useless elements as well that are of no use in cement production. Presence of
these elements in cement degrade its quality and extraction of these elements increases overall
cost of cement making. Other than this there are various other materials that can be used as are
placement of cement that are cheap in producing and are environmentally sustainable as well like
GGBFS. Due to this most of the industries do not prefer using BR or cement production. It is one
of the main barriers in using BR (Mendes and et al., 2019). Another barrier is legal barrier i.e.
26

usage of BR for cement production require different kinds of special permits like transportation
permits and storage permit. Other than this many times industries also face social barriers in
which disposal of BR wastage becomes a problem for them because local communities do not
allow to dump waste material nearby.
Ways in which Bauxite residue can be industrialized in Australian market
Bauxite residue for cement production is not used at commercial level by Australian
cement production industries at large scale. It is used at small scale in Australia for cement
production. It is majorly because there are various kinds of alternatives that can be used as a
replacement of BR and cement (Safdar and et al., 2016). One such example is GGBFS (Zhang,
Li and Liu, 2016). It is produced from iron slang. Usage of iron slang for GGBFS production is
done at large commercial scale in Australia. From the above analysis it has been interpreted that
commercial usage of BR for cement production can be increased if requirement of special
permission for BR usage, transportation and storage is reduced and lower alkalinity level BR is
only supplied for cement production (Santini and et al., 2016). It will not only hep cement
producers to gain raw material required for production at lower cost but will also help in making
it much easier for them to use BR for making high quality and strength cement.
Summary
From the above analysis of results and findings it has been summarized that Bauxite
residue is an important by-product that can be used for production of cement which is high in
quality, durability, cost effective and most importantly environmentally sustainable. BR consist
of various kinds of elements that are required in cement production like iron, alumina because of
which requirement of different kinds of raw material and their cost reduces. It has also been
summarized that there are various kinds of barrier in usage of Bauxite residue in production of
cement because of which it is not used in large quantity at commercial level.
27

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
Above research has focused upon analysing analyse ways in which cement production
made from BR can be industrialized in Australia. This research has focused upon analysing
possible ways in which bauxite residue can be used in production of cement. Bauxite reside is a
by product of aluminium ore production. Disposal of Bauxite residue had always been an area of
concern because its disposal requires large area. It is extremely harmful for both land and
water.it can not only increase contamination of water and soil if disposed but it can also result in
increasing environment pollution. With the help of systematic literature review, it can be
concluded that there are many different kinds of methods that can be used for storage and
disposal of Bauxite residue in such a manner that its harmful impact upon environment can be
reduced. There are various kinds of methods such as dry mud stacking, slurry disposal technique,
solar drying process and many more. These processes not only help in disposal of BR but also
help in stacking it at one particular place. From this research it has also been concluded that there
are various kinds of ways though which Bauxite residue can be reused and if it cannot be reused
then in such case it should be processed and then sent for disposal. All the organizations need to
comply with bauxite residue disposal area terms and condition and environmental standards and
when they dispose BR wastage then they should make sure that all the main terms, conditions
and standards are maintained.
Initially this research had focused upon disposal of BR, characteristics of BR. In order to
achieve main aim of this project, five main objectives were defined that helped in answering
research questions inappropriate manner which further resulted in achievement of main aim of
the project. Literature review of previous articles or research paper helped in understanding that
before focusing upon reuse of Bauxite reside it is important to understand its characteristics. It
has also been summarized that Bauxite reside obtained from different methods has different
elements present within it. Before reusing BR for various purposes like cement production it is
important to understand different types of elements present within it and their composition. It is
important to be understood because it can directly impact overall quality and durability of the
product like cement. Understand elements present within BR and their composition also helps in
understand whether BR can be used for production of cement or not. Initially this research had
only focused upon Br, its characteristics and ways in which it can be reused but systematic
28

literature review of secondary data gathered and collected also helped in understanding that it is
important to understand whether usage of BR is viable or not. Key findings and iterate review
helped in summarizing that BR is a viable product in terms of finance, environment
sustainability. But in terms of transportation it is not viable because lower aggregate value of BR
and its alkalinity makes it difficult to transport. Not only this, before transportation of Bauxite
reside it is important to take some special permission so that it can be transported easily. But in
order to make BR viable for transportation various kinds of alternative methods can be used such
as autochthonous alkaliphilic microorganism’s method.
By analysing secondary data, it was identified that one of the main barrier because of
which BR is used less in Australian market is because there are various other alternatives of
cement available in market that are cost effective, has high quality and with time their durability
also increase. One such example is Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag which is also known as
GGBFS. It is made from iron slang. GGBFS require iron sang for production and its quite cost
effective, environmentally sustainable ad with time its durability also increases. It works and
provide same strength as cement. In Australian market this GGGFS is used a lot in place of
cement especially for concrete. By overcoming this barrier, Bauxite residue and its usage in
Australian market for cement production at industrial scale can be used. It has been identified
that for this it is important to monitor elements present within BR and their chemical
composition. BR should be high in iron and alumina as it helps in producing high quality cement
that can be used for construction. Analysis of secondary data also helped in identifying that
cement production site should be developed near Bauxite residue area as it will not only help in
gaining all kinds of required legal permissions but will also help in making transportation and
storage easier and will further reside overall cost associated with it.
Scope for further research
The main interest of this thesis is to identify ways in which Bauxite residue can be made
commercialized for cement production in Australia. This dissertation has focused upon different
uses of Bauxite residue, barriers in its usage and ways in which those barriers can overcome.
This dissertation can be further used for identifying other uses of BR and ways in which its usage
can benefit Australian cement production industry. This research had focused upon various
analysis different factors related to BR such as whether it is a viable product or not, till how
much level it can impact quality of cement, ways in which it can be reused or disposed. But
29

knowledge about its viability and ways in which barriers in its usage can be overcome had not
been discussed in detailed manner. This research is limited to use of Bauxite residue in
Australian cement production industry. This research can be used as a base for further research
for identifying ways in which Bauxite residue can be used other purposes in international market
as well. There might be an important rationale to extend this research further such as usage of
Bauxite residue other refining process as well and ways in which its exportation in international
market can be beneficial.
30

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