The Emergence of Translational Epidemiology

This paper discusses the emergence of translational epidemiology and its application in cancer research. It highlights the prevalence of cancer, its impact on society, and the intervention strategies that have been employed to manage the disease. The paper also discusses the impact of interventions on culture and policy.

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THE EMERGENCE OF TRANSLATIONAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
Name
Lecturer
Course
Date

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The Emergence of Translational Epidemiology
Question 1
The popularity of the culture of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) has encouraged many
scholars to engage in research to study various diseases and issues of concern in the healthcare
sector. The outcome that is analyzed in this paper is, therefore, cancer. Cancer is a disease that
has been causing lots of troubles to the human society. It is one of the most deadly ailments that
cause deaths as well as other social, economic, and psychological impacts on the people. The
literature in this paper has at some point brought into light the issues of cancer and its
epidemiology. The process of epidemiology has been analyzed in accordance with the phases of
translational research. There are basically four phases and the prostate-antigen has been
highlighted. T2 which is the second phase of translational research will conduct research based
on policies and recommendations of the field research. T3 involves the process of disseminating
and implementing interventions which are based on evidence in practice (Torre, Bray, Siegel,
Ferlay, Lortet-Tieulent & Jemal 2015). T4 would focus on the health impact that the prostate-
specific screening effect has on the general population.
Cancer is one of the biggest disease burdens of the population at the moment. The current
prevalence is 439.2 per 100,000 for both men and women per year. These statistics are based
between 2011 and 2015. The mortality rate is at 163.5 per 100,000 for both men and women per
year. “It is predicted that by 2030, the number of new cancer cases will mount to 21.7 million
and 13 million sufferers of cancer will die owing to the growth and aging of the population
(Bray, Jemal, Grey, Ferlay, & Forman, 2012). The prevalence of cancer differs from one place
to the other because it is dependent on the various social, economic, behavioral, and
environmental determinants of health in the society. Such determinants include cultural values,

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economic status, lifestyle, accessibility to healthcare services. The disease is, therefore, more
prevalent amongst the poor people because they are more vulnerable and not as empowered like
their privileged counterparts. That justifies why cancer infections are high amongst the poor
people in the less developed nations. It is in such places where people engage in harmful lifestyle
and behaviors and also lack capacity to seek for timely healthcare services that they need.
Caner is a disease that causes a huge burden in the society. it is costly because it requires
a lot of money to be used for its treatment and management. Its burden has been, for a long time,
born by individuals and governments. For example in the United States of America, the
estimated expenditure for cancer case as of 2017 was at $147.3 billion. The costs of treatment,
early scanning is likely to go up considering the fact that the cases are increasingly reported.
Cancer tends to attack people who are between 40-55 years old according to a report done by
Muhammad Rewan of Cogent Medicine in 2012. Most cases were high among the age of 45-54
both for males and females. Most of the cases of cancer such as bladder cancer were high among
males as compared to females (Rewan, 2012). The most diagnosed type of cancer among the
female population is breast cancer which also causes the highest number of deaths. This type of
cancer mostly affects women because it is the section of the population that is more susceptible
to it than any other. The status of the women makes them more vulnerable to this disease than
any other group in the society.
The studies are consistent in reporting about cancer. Their internal validity is okay
because they provide valid information that can be relied upon to understand much about the
causes, prevalence, and the intervention efforts so far put in place to manage the disease. For
example, the report on cancer is valid. The articles show how his type of cancer is most prevalent
in developed countries as compared to developing countries. “Almost one-half of all breast

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cancer cases and 38% of deaths due to breast cancer occur in the more developed countries”
(International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2012). The effect size of the reported cases of
different types of cancer between developed countries and developing countries is large (Cojoc,
Peitzsch, Trautmann, Polishchuk, Telegeev & Dubrovska 2013). This is brought by the different
lifestyles that people in these two types of countries lead. All these information demonstrates that
the studies are consistent in giving a comprehensive and informative data on cancer, its
prevalence and impacts. The research gives a comprehensive study on cancer and illustrate show
negatively it has been impacting on the human populations.
Question 2
Cancer, just like any other disease, can be managed if appropriate interventions are
adopted. Although cancer affects many people, there are some patients who end up recovering.
That happens because such patients implement appropriate interventions which suit their
conditions hence putting them in the right path of recovery. The studies have been conducted to
investigate the various interventions that are applied to deal with the condition. Different studies
have been published each addressing a specific intervention. There are studies which have been
employing the use of qualitative or quantitative design. At the same time, there are others which
have been using the random control trials to study the efficacy and effectiveness of certain
interventions adopted in dealing with the cancer cases. However, no matter the approach, the
studies have been of great significance because they provide insightful information on cancer
and how to deal with it.
From the report used to write this paper, T2 which is the second phase of Translational
Research, it assesses the efficacy of the interventions used to counter disease by use of the
studies which are obtained experimentally and by observation. One of the interventions that have

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been presented is maintaining a healthy weight throughout the life cycle (Ma, Yank., Xiao,
Lavori, Wilson, Rosas & Stafford 2013). As clearly outlined in the article, lifestyle justifications
are regarded as one of the most effective interventions for cancer. The studies report that weight
gain might be a disastrous thing because it makes individuals susceptible to cancer and other
lifestyle diseases like diabetes. Meaning, its management can be equated to the fight against
cancer (Ornish, et al. 2013). So, anyone who wants to manage cancer should consider weight
loss as one of the most viable strategies. It can improve one’s health since it rids the body off
calories and fats which are harmful for human health. It can, therefore, be much better if
individuals take the responsibility of changing their lifestyle because it can put them in the right
path of leading a cancer-free life.
Research has established that there are different strategies that can be employed when
engaging in weight loss. Many health specialists recommend different methods of maintaining a
healthy weight which helps to reduce the probability of cancer attack. One can maintain the body
weight by keeping the rate of caloric intake in pace with the physical activity (Straif, Cohen &
Samet 2013). Individuals who are overweight are advised to consider losing weight to avoid
being obese which may eventually lead to cancer attack. Studies reveal that physical activity can
be a good strategy for weight loss because when individuals exercise, they end up burning excess
calories that might be in the body. The end result is that there will be a reduction in body weight
since all forms of accumulation of the fats and calories will be eliminated. A person who does
that has lower chances of getting cancer disease because it cannot get any gap through which it
can get its way into the body.
The studies on the intervention strategies are consistent because they report that cancer is
a disease that can be managed if appropriate intervention strategies are embraced. The outcome

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of interventions is sustainable because through an intervention, it becomes easy for any patient to
manage the condition and lead a better life. Consistent evidence show that overweight and
obesity are risk factors in the attack by cancer. Limited-quality (Level 2) evidence that
overweight and obesity are risk factors for multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and
cancers of the cervix, gallbladder, liver, ovary, pancreas, and thyroid (Kerscher, Chua, Gasser,
Maeder, Kunzmann, Isbert, Germer & Pelz 2013). Anyone who makes deliberate steps towards
the performance of physical exercises can be relieved because his life might not be in a
dangerous state it would otherwise be if there was no form of physical activity.
Adults are also advised to undergo at least a 30-minute vigorous physical activity every
three days of the week which helps to keep fitness. Children and adolescents are advised to
undergo 60 minutes of physical exercise per day. Physical activity should be embraced by
everyone in the society because it has been proven to be one of the most effective behavior
changes that should be promoted and nurtured in the society. Evidence indicates that physical
activity offers significant protection for cancers of the breast and colon (Maurer, Eiber,
Schwaiger & Gschwend 2016). Many people do not exercise because they are not aware that it
can be healthy for their physical and mental growth. In this regard, both the children and adults
should be encouraged to exercise as it has a potential of improving their health and putting them
in the right path of recovery.
Question 3
The studies show how the interventions have been impacting on the war against cancer.
Over the years, the interventions have been used for the benefits of individuals, families, and
community members who deserve to be liberated from the yoke of cancer. It is, therefore, true
that the cancer interventions have been converted into treatments, therapies, cultural changes,

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service provision, and legislative responses. Such developments have to take place because the
society is not static, but subject to many changes. In the healthcare sector, for instance, new
inventions and innovations have to be made because of the constant research that is conducted by
the scholars on issues of concern like diseases. For example, the use of weight-loss strategy has
been popularized and made to be one of the common interventions for cancer.
One of the ways through which the interventions have been converted into policy
frameworks is by coming up with legislative responses to that effect. For example, most
developed countries where the prevalence of cancer attack is high are creating awareness
campaigns which inform people of the best intervention techniques against cancer attack. One
example of cases that are caused by obesity, experts try to advice on the proper foods and
activities that can reduce obesity (Corcoran 2013). Also these countries have created specific
areas where people can undertake their physical exercises in the view to reduce cancer attacks.
Policies aimed at creating public awareness have been implemented by rolling-out extensive
health promotion campaigns in the country. That is the common strategy that has been favored
by many policy frameworks which have been exclusively implemented to address the issue of
cancer and provide adequate education to the members of the public to deal with it well.
The interventions have also been magnified from a cultural perspective. Meaning, they
have had some impacts on the cultural views of different segments of the society. Different
interventions to some extent have interfered with the cultures of the people. People get to change
their staple diet because of the fear of getting attacked by cancer. Some communities may have
to take meals which are against their cultures and traditions. In the traditional world, most people
used to engage in less physical exercises as compared to the current world where the prevalence
of cancer is fast rising (Burke, Orr, Leitao, Salom, Gehrig, Olawaiye, Brewer, Boruta, Herzog &

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Shahin 2014). Most of the people tend to engage in exercises which are somehow deemed
against their norms. Although exercises have no much alteration on the cultures of the people,
some experts still argue that it has some impact. Most interventions towards the risk of cancer
have shown new therapies. Reduced levels of obesity have shown positive results in the risk of
cancer attack.
The full implementation of these interventions is realized because of a number of factors.
One, it is attributed to the support and contributions of all the government. The government
facilitates the implementation of interventions because it provides the required finances and
support that is always needed for them. The government has been playing a vital role in
financing health promotion campaigns as well as research efforts made by the scientists to get
new knowledge and disseminate it to the members of the public. Two, the implementation is
facilitated by the willingness of the medics to support it as expected (Street, Gold & Manning
2013). If there is no cooperation of the healthcare providers, no intervention can be a success
because it is these professionals who spearhead the implementation of such strategies and
dedicate their time to ensure that they are adopted for the benefit of the larger public. The
involvement of the medics has, therefore, played a significant role enhancing various health
promotion campaign geared towards the eradication of cancer.
Despite the significant contributions of interventions in dealing with the problem of
cancer in the society, the implementation of such interventions has been hindered because of the
numerous barriers that stand on its way. The first barrier that derails the full and effective
implementation of the interventions is financial constraints. Some governments are facing
growing expenditures on the awareness campaigns while some governments are not able to fund
the awareness campaigns (Baum & Fisher 2014). These nations end up incurring high debts from

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international organizations such as World Bank to fund these campaigns. These loans have an
economic impact which is highly likely to be negative. Cancer management is such a huge
burden because it involves the use of so many resources (Singh, Ndiaye & Ahmad 2015).
Meaning, the government must spare some of its projects and allocate enough resources for it.
This, however, does not usually happen in the less developed nations which lack enough
resources hence forcing them to borrow and soldier huge debts.
The other challenge facing this intervention is the fact that some part of the population at
risk is reluctant to change their diet because of culture and tradition concerns. Some of the foods
that are being consumed by these communities are leading to obesity conditions which may
eventually lead to cancer. Cancer can be adequately eliminated if the entire population is
cooperative (Rehan 2017). The intervention process can be a success if supported by individuals
because they are the ones who need it most. Therefore, to achieve this, they should be ready to
go for medical check-up and if diagnosed, be ready to engage in all the activities that are
recommended to them by the medics. If such a cooperation level is attained, cancer would never
become such a major challenge in the country and any other part of the world where it has been
causing problems.

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