Water Quality Management and Control of Water Pollution in the UK

This research aims to compare the water quality of a river with flow rate, river level and rainfall. It also evaluates the present conditions of water in River Tame and analyses the effect of flow rate, river level and rainfall on water quality. The research recommends management strategies to reduce contamination levels in water. The literature review discusses types of water pollutants, river water management protocols, and legislation related to wastewater and pollution management. The methodology includes post-positivism research approach and secondary research methods. Subject: Environmental Science, Course Code: ENV101, College/University: Not Mentioned

WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF
WATER POLLUTION IN THE UK

Abstract
Background: Domestic as well as industrial activities seems to liberate huge amount of wastes
into the water system thereby polluting the water bodies. It has been observed that huge amount
of agricultural activities produces carbon and sulfur materials thereby contaminating water
sources. It has also been observed that household activities also produces huge amount of carbon
particles into the water bodies thereby resulting in contamination. This water contamination has
detrimental impact on health profile of normal people. Therefore, waste water treatment
techniques need to be incorporated by UK government in order to reduce this water
contamination. It has been observed that the river Tame at Denton has highest pollution records
in UK. Highest contamination of micro plastics has been recorded since the past few years. Thus,
this river bed needs wastewater treatment facilities in order to prevent water contamination.
Aims & objectives: The aim of the research is to compare the water quality of a river with flow
rate, river level and rainfall. It is also essential to conceptualise water quality management in the
present economy through comparative study of literature. Furthermore, a proper evaluation of the
present conditions of water in River Tame and tally it with the observations of last five years also
need to be carried out.
Methodology: The researcher has selected post-positivism research philosophy in order to carry
out this study. Furthermore, deductive research approach and descriptive design have also been
used by the researcher to obtain information related to water pollution in UK. Secondary
research methods using 15 research journals from SCOPUS, SCOPUS and Taylor and Francis
have been carried out by the researcher.
Findings: Water pollution is an activity of contamination of the natural resources through the
widespread human, industrial or agricultural activities. Almost 42% of the river basin has
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undergone urbanisation and this explains the heavy contamination of river bed with metals.
Therefore, quality management is essential and prerequisite in order to prevent water
contamination thereby ensuring effective health profile of people.
Conclusion: Extensive human and industrial activities have caused water pollution thereby
impacting the health profile of normal people. It is thus recommended to make use of the
available resources to revise the management plan. Proper and effective watershed management
along with sustainable sewage disposal is essential in order to reduce water contamination.
Key words: Wastewater harvesting, water contamination, riverbed ecosystem, eutrophication,
biomagnifications, integrated wastewater treatment.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 6
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Background of the research 6
1.3 Research Aim and objectives 7
1.4 Research rationale 7
1.5 Significance of the study 8
1.6 Summary 8
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Types of water pollutants 10
2.2.1 Organic soluble pollutants 10
2.2.2 Organic insoluble pollutants 11
2.2.3 Inorganic soluble pollutants 12
Figure 2.2: Inorganic soluble pollutants 12
2.2.4 Inorganic insoluble pollutants 13
2.3 River water management protocols 14
2.3.1 Significance of water 15
2.3.2 Factors affecting water quality 15
2.4 Identification of water pollutants through the usage of various techniques 16
2.4.1 Analysis of overall quality of river water sources 17
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2.4.2 Water sampling programmes 18
2.4.3 Analysis of the river water quality in the UK 19
2.5 Variations in water management techniques 20
2.6 Legislation related to wastewater and pollution management 21
2.7 Impact of river water quality on health 22
2.8 Effects of rainfall on water bodies 23
2.8.1 Impact of acid rain on water contamination in UK 24
2.8.2 Impact of rainfall on combined sewer overflows 25
2.9 Summary 26
2.12 Conceptual framework 26
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Research philosophy 29
3.3 Research approach 29
3.4 Research design 30
3.5 Research strategy 31
3.6 Time horizon 31
3.7 Data collection tools and techniques 32
3.8 Data analysis tools and techniques 32
3.10 Reliability and validity 33
3.11 Summary 34
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 46
5.1 Conclusion 46
5.2 Recommendation 46
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5.3 Objective Linking 48
5.4 Limitation of the research 49
5.5 Future scope 49
Reference List 51
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Domestic and industrial activities liberate huge amount of chemicals that pollute water bodies
thereby affecting the health profile of individuals. Sewage, agricultural as well as household
wastes are constantly dumped into nearly water bodies thereby contaminating water resources.
The management practices for water pollution aim to control the level of degradation caused to
the water body. This sort of wastewater management is essential and prerequisite in order to
improve water quality thereby ensuring proper health quality. The current chapter of the research
project will highlight the background of the research and the aim and objective of the research
project, the research questions will also be included in the current section in order to link it with
the objective in the later parts. The research hypothesis along with the research rationale will also
be mentioned in the research project. The current chapter of the dissertation will also include the
significance of the research.
1.2 Background of the research
Water management is an activity of developing, distributing and planning the optimum use of all
the water resources. The water quality management indicates auxiliary control of water
contamination owing to industrial and municipal sewage. As stated by Victor (2017), water
quality management deals with all the aspects of the water quality that can be related to the
ranges of beneficial uses of the water. In addition to this water quality is a reflection of water
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composition to all inputs, both in the case if natural and cultural inputs. It has been found that
40% of the rivers in England and Wales are polluted by sewage. The quality of the water is being
degraded due to the increase in water pollution in the UK. It has been observed that the river
Tame at Denton has highest pollution records in UK. Highest contamination of microplastics has
been recorded since the past few years. As per the statistical recordings, almost 90% of plastic
contamination occurs in UK.
The researchers have also evidenced that the UK must improve the water management in order
to face the droughts. It is required that proper water quality management should be carried out so
that water pollution can also be controlled in the UK. As stated by Hering et al., (2015),
agriculture pollution and oil pollution are the major sources of the water pollution in England. In
the UK the agricultural industry covers 76% of the land in England and Wales.
1.3 Research Aim and objectives
The aim of the research is to compare the water quality of a river with flow rate, river level and
rainfall.
The objectives are given below.
● To conceptualise water quality management in the present economy through comparative
study of literature
● To evaluate the present conditions of water in River Tame and tally it with the
observations of last five years
● To analyse the effect of flow rate, river level and rainfall on water quality
● To recommend management strategies to reduce contamination levels in water
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1.4 Research rationale
The issue of this research is to analyse the management strategies to reduce water pollution
levels from the rivers of UK. As mentioned by Rosa et al., (2014), the water in the UK is not
properly being managed based on their quality. It is required that the water quality should be
maintained following the EU standards for the water pollution.
This is the issue because drinking water treatment has been degraded in the UK. (Brack et al.,
2015). As noticed by Ding et al., (2015), currently people use 150 litres of water on average per
day. However, people living in London exceed it to 164 litres. Along with the health, it also has
the impact on the environment (Navarro-Ortega et al., 2015). Thus, in case the quality of
drinking water degrades, it can hamper the overall water supply in the UK wills also be
degraded.
This is an issue now due to increasing global phenomenon like climate change and industrial
growth. It has been observed that in the UK all potable water is being treated and is also meets
the requirements of the EU drinking water directive. Thus, meeting all the requirements of EU
drinking water direction in the scenario of water pollution, the government faced the issue of
water management in the country. As asserted by Uyttendaele et al. (2015), the health of water
bodies matters a great for the UK. In 2015, it has been observed that only 17% of the total water
has been found to be in good condition (Watts et al., 2015). The research sheds light on present
contamination levels of water sources in the UK. The government and industry need to be
developed supply-demand systems that help in encouraging the less - water-intensive lifestyles.
The researchers also have found that social and material aspects of the everyday life are much
mundane that they have opportunities in posing the water efficiencies that are often being
overlooked. In addition this the research will also highlight the present water quality of the water
bodies of the UK. Thus, the research project will help to develop strategies that will mitigate the
issues of water quality in river Tame.
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1.5 Significance of the study
The significance of the study is that it’s probable usability to determine necessary changes that
should be brought in government policies relevant to the issue of water pollution. There has been
a high rate of water pollution in UK and this need to be mitigated by the governmental policies.
It is essential to understand the water quality management measures in order to improve health
system. Adverse health impacts have been evident due to water contamination therefore, it is
essential to analyse the root cause from water contamination. This will help in maintaining the
quality of river water among the population of UK.
Along with that, research is also helpful in developing the strategies that can mitigate the water
pollution issues in the UK. In this way, excessive river water contamination can be reduced
within UK. Moreover, the healthy ecosystems and proper genetic diversity will also be
maintained with the concerned research project. Therefore, this research study will help the
researcher to understand the water contamination trends in UK. Activities that could to excessive
accumulation of wastes within water system would also be evaluated in this particular study.
Accordingly, quality management techniques could be implemented that would help in reducing
water contamination. The research project is significant as the water pollution controls the excess
of nutrients from both the public health perspective in order to keep the natural water bodies free
from eutrophication. Moreover, the research will also help in knowing the ways to monitor the
water quality. This will again help in the prevention of the water pollution with the suitable
methods.
1.6 Summary
Based on the above information, it can be stated that the research project will compare water
quality with river levels, the rate of flow and rainfall. Along with that research is mainly focused
on the two variables namely water quality management and water control. The research
questions of the research project are to conceptualise the water quality management in the
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present economy. Moreover, some of the governmental policies should also be developed which
can help in mitigating the water pollution issues in the UK.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Management of water quality is essential for maintaining a sustainable living and economic
standards of the environment peripheral to the water body. Water pollution impacts both natural
and artificial reservoirs of water, thereby lowering its potability. The chapter sheds light on the
published literature on the issue of quality control of water and the effects seen on it due to a
variety of events. The literature is thematically segregated on the basis of widely observed issues
pertaining to lowering of quality in river water. Events such as rainfall, river flow and level can
impose a long-lasting effect on the potability of river water.
2.2 Types of water pollutants
Water pollutants are the substances that cause physical, chemical and biological changes in the
water bodies. As stated by Sherriff et al., (2017), freshwater pollution is classified into two major
types known as surface water pollution and groundwater pollution. Some of the key pollutants of
water are sewage, industrial, agricultural and thermal pollutants. The types of water pollutants
are given below.
2.2.1 Organic soluble pollutants
Agricultural activities liberate huge amount of organic wastes that seem to pollute the
environment. Farmers often need to use several pesticides that serve to pollute water bodies.
Organic pollutants such as lindane and triclosan are obtained through groundwater leaching from
contaminated areas. These organic pollutants have detrimental impact on river water bodies
thereby affecting the marine life forms. Insecticides and herbicides are extensively used in
agriculture in order to yield high quality of food products. Barlow & Clarke (2017) commented
that triclosans are antifungal as well as antibacterial agents that have been used in various
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consumer products. This chemical has the potential to harm the marine organisms thereby
polluting water bodies. Pesticides that are extensively used in agriculture to increase food
production also cause immense health-related issues when mixed with fresh water bodies.
Lindane is a gamma isomer of hexachlorobenzene that is most commonly referred by misnomer
hexachlorobenzene. Skin rash, dizziness as well as drowsiness are some of the adverse health
impacts caused by lindane.
Apart from lindane, organic manure as well as sewage has devastating impact on water bodies.
Heliovaara (2018:78) commented that farmers use these organic manures and sewage within
their agricultural field in order to yield high productivity. However, these organic soluble
manures and sewage affect the quality of water bodies thereby leading to contamination. Watson
(2015) expresses concern about the release of hormone-like constituents that may bring
undesirable changes in the genetic content of fish. Pottinger & Matthiessen (2016) assert that
hazardous substances like antibacterial agents can also affect the organisms and plankton. In
addition, agricultural waste and effluent from slaughterhouses and poultry farms and pesticides
can also be categorised under organic soluble pollutants.
2.2.2 Organic insoluble pollutants
Phthalates, polychlorinated biphenyls are used as by-products in several manufacturing
companies. These harmful chemicals get exposed to water bodies thereby contaminating the
water resources. High exposure to PCB affects endocrine functions and retards physical growth.
Known cognitive and behavioural dysfunction has also been evident on consumption of water
contaminated with PCBs. Hutzinger, Van Lelyveld & Zoeteman (2015) opined that excessive
consumption of PCBs and organic metabolites affects fetal growth at the time of gestation. Some
of the persistent organic pollutants are prominent organic substances that show resistance to
prolonged environmental degradation through biological, chemical and photolytic protocols.
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Faecal wastes have detrimental impact on water system thereby affecting the river quality.
Coliform bacteria have high prevalence in the digestive tract of humans thereby affecting the
equality of river water. Apart from these, huge proportions of agricultural pesticides affect water
quality by liberating nitrates and phosphates. Laws (2015) opined that infestation of disease-
causing worms accounts to biological wastes within water system. Presence of these biological
pollutants causes contamination of water system that ultimately has health impact. As
commented by Bieroza et al., (2018), animal and human faecal matters, oil and garbage can give
rise to accumulation of insoluble organic materials on the river bed. High prevalence of these
biological wastes have huge impact on the quality of river water. Therefore, it can be said that
extensive use of agricultural products have detrimental impacts on water bodies.
2.2.3 Inorganic soluble pollutants
One of the most prominent contaminations in river water is caused by runoff and residues of
inorganic pesticides, like silicates, borates and sulfur. Gavrilescu et al., (2015) opined that
erosion to water bodies also results in contamination. Huge amount of inorganic silts get
deposited into river water thereby affecting the quality of it. Fine sand and clay get deposited as
river sediments that overall impact the quality of river water. The water from runoff is
contaminated by significant levels of dissolved calcium and sewers. Apart from calcium, salts
and iron also get deposited into river water that have the potential to contaminate water system
(Navarro-Ortega et al., 2017).
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Figure 2.2: Inorganic soluble pollutants
(Source: Baker et al., 2016)
Nitrates and sulphur metabolites are evident in river water that also result in water
contamination. Furthermore, accumulation of high proportion of dissolved calcium and iron can
impact the usability of water in the long and short-term scenario. Pearce (2014) opined that high
exposure to these dissolve metal have detrimental impact on health profile of people. High
incidences of skin problems along with respiratory ailments are common among individuals
upon consumption of this contaminated water. Consumption of this contaminated river water
could result in high proportion of people suffering from dysentery and diarrheal that affects their
physical health. Acute diarrhea could also result in severe dehydration thereby leading to high
mortality rate.
Groundwater contamination is another factor that has an impact on health status of people. Baker
et al., (2016) commented that measuring groundwater contamination could easily portray water
contamination of surrounding river bed. High contamination of fluorides and other inorganic
wastes have devastating impact on health. Problems related to physical growth and neurological
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development are evident with fluoride consumption. Dalu & Froneman (2016) opined that
limited proportion of fluorides have beneficial effect on body. Furthermore, prevalence of
fluoride with water system helps to prevent dental issues and protects any individual against
cavities. However, overconsumption of this element could result in detrimental impact on health
profile.
2.2.4 Inorganic insoluble pollutants
Heavy metals like mercury and chromium take prolonged time for degradation in sewage plants.
However, as argued by Kirschke & Newig (2017), the persistent and lipophilic nature of these
products has given rise to the risk of bioaccumulation. The factories that manufacture plastic and
pesticides release mercury and effluents in the nearby water (Watts et al., 2015). This, in turn,
can greatly affect the quality of the water and pave the way for long ranged degradation and
quality disruption.
2.24.1 Mercury contamination within water bodies
Mercury is one of the naturally occurring elements that in combination with other potent metals
form insoluble inorganic compounds (SEPA, 2018). Horton et al., (2017) stated that degassing of
Earth’s crust results in accumulation of mercury. Furthermore, high rate of consumption of fossil
fuels also liberates huge amounts of carbon that seem to pollute the environment. These fossil
fuels contaminate the water resources thereby impacting the environment. Hannah & Garner
(2015) further added that excessive exposure to these organic and inorganic elements result in
detrimental health impacts.
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Figure 2.3: Mercury contamination health impacts
(Source: Ferati, Kerolli-Mustafa & Kraja-Ylli, 2015)
High occurrence of neurological disorders has been observed among people on being exposed to
these mercuric compounds. Apart from this, kidney damage and cognitive functions have been
impaired in high exposure to this metal. In addition to this, clinical and pathological tests have
also revealed memory problems and changes in hearing ability.
2.3 River water management protocols
Superior water management programmes helps in providing an optimal balance of both water
and soil. Irrigation is the artificial way of applying the water to soil that is essential for the
growth of plants; on the other hand, drainage is the removal of excess water from the areas in
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order to balance the proper quality of water. As viewed by Cao, Raith & Griffith (2015),
improvement in water management is a significant way to increase the crop yield. Irrigation is
necessary to monitor water quality in the water quality management. Farmers could use irrigation
in order to manage and maintain water quality and improve the quality of river water. Moreover,
wastage of water could also be prevented with the use of irrigation. Information regarding the
quality of potable water is closely monitored through multiple physical and chemical parameters.
The main parameters for checking the water quality is the physical, chemical and biological
properties. In order to effectively check the quality of water, the temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity and salinity is measured. This provides the results regarding whether the
water is being polluted or not. As opined by Ferati et al., (2015), water quality management is
required due to the increase in water pollution in the recent times. Domestic, agricultural and
industry are the three major sources where water pollution occurs. Extensive use of agricultural
pesticides and nitrates lead to contamination of river water. Therefore, it is essential to measure
water quality in order to manage water quality. In order to effectively manage the water
pollution, reduction in waste by simple technologies can be done such as Grease trap and on-site
treatment (Islam, Ahmed, Raknuzzaman, Habibullah-Al-Mamun & Islam, 2015). Encouraging
the public to participate for sustainable usage and domestic waste management would also be an
effective step to control water pollution.
2.3.1 Significance of water
Water is essential for the existence of all the life forms. In addition water is required for
household uses, industry, fishery and tourism. As stated by Sun et al., (2016), the quality of
water is being decreased as day by day water is becoming more polluted. The fresh water that is
available to humans comes from the major two sources that are surface water and groundwater.
As commented by Kuroda et al., (2015), rain and snow are good natural resources of the
freshwater, it is being estimated that all the forms of precipitation fall on earth, one third of the
precipitation is absorbed by crops and another one third is absorbed by the soil and remaining
runs off as rivers known as surface water.
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2.3.2 Factors affecting water quality
Water pollution is the process in which the streams, lakes and seas are being contaminated which
proves harmful for the living beings. These contaminants also harm aquatic organisms thereby
impairing their growth. High exposure to these contaminants has detrimental impact on this
aquatic ecosystem due to a process called biomagnification and eutrophication. Jin et al.
(2016:1496-1506) opined that disposal of wastes into water bodies creates a cover on water
system thereby blocking the oxygen and sunlight from penetrating into the river bed. This
blockage increased biological oxygen demands for aquatic organisms thereby affecting the life
forms within the river bed. As commented by Watts et al., (2015), industrialisation and
population increase are two significant factors of water pollution. Whitehead et al., (2016)
further added that excessive industrialisation liberates harmful chemicals into the river bed
thereby causing contamination of water resources.
Fluorides, nitrates and sulphur compounds from several agricultural activities are liberated into
the water bodies thereby contaminating the resources. Apart from these several carbon
compounds are also released into the water bodies by these industries. Physical parameters are
colour, turbidity, and electrical conductivity which can be the good indicators of contamination.
The chemical parameters include carbonates, sulphates fluoride, metal ions and nitrates. Lastly,
biological parameters include algae, fungi, viruses and bacteria. As opined by Kuroda et al.
(2015: 287-298), water pollutants that cause reduction in floral and faunal population occur can
increase in content as they move up the aquatic food chain.
2.3.3 Integrated water resources management protocol
The environment agencies of England and Wales have proposed to use an integrated
management system in order to minimize increased water pollution in the specified area. These
agencies have taken an initiative and proposed several strategies that could improve water
quality thereby turning down the extent of water contamination instances. This management
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protocol has proposed to take preventative measures in order to reduce waste disposal within
water bodies. The soap and detergent industries have been provided with guidelines regarding
waste disposal within water systems. They required filtering their wastes in order to prevent
water contamination. Therefore, UK government has taken an initiative in order to improve
water quality of nearby river beds thereby preventing water contamination.
2.4 Identification of water pollutants through the usage of various techniques
Identification of water pollutants is based on the recognition of key components of the predicted
source of contamination. Recognition of organic contaminants in river water and systematic
assessment of their potential adverse effects are closely associated activities. Berry et al. (2018:
40) opined that river water is detected with the help of various methods and techniques. Most of
the researchers collect sample of river water and test them using multiplex PCR in order to detect
presence of any rotavirus within the water bodies. Multiplex PCR has been used by the
government in order to test water contamination. Presence of bacteria and virus and their
proportion could be tested using this testing protocol thereby leading the researchers to strategize
water management process. Furthermore, several smart water sensors are also used in order to
detect presence of any water pollutants. These methods have been extensively used by
researchers in order to detect and identify the concentration of water pollution in river bed.
2.4.1 Recognition of organic chemicals: The recognition of organic chemicals facilitates
hazards evaluation. As stated by Smolders, Rolls, Ryder, Watkinson & Mackenzie (2015),
biological recognition methods can indicate probable genotoxic hazards through a series of
essays, for example, Ames tests. Mutagenic activities in river bed could be detected using Ames
test. Petrochemical industries liberate huge amount of industrial wastes that seem to pollute the
river bed. The concentration of these pollutants are tested using Ames Test. Recognition of
active chemicals has given rise to a need of immediate assessment. Identification techniques for
low organic concentrations in water are promoted in the last few decades (Lloyd et al. 2016: 388-
404). These are driven by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry methods.
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2.4.2 Recognition of inorganic contaminants
It is also suggested that implementation of variations for quality parameters can be used to test
for inorganic components. This involves detection of pH, alkalinity, and dissolved oxygen,
organic and metal content. Water quality parameters can also act as proficient identifying
methods. These techniques can be applicable to volatile compounds. They comprise of a minute
fraction of net organic content in the water. The amount of asbestos, fluorides and nitrates are
measured in order to analyse the rate of water contamination. Metal contamination also required
to be checked and monitored in order to analyse the rate of river water contamination. The
dissolved oxygen level along with turbidity and presence of faecal coliform could be detected
using various river water detectors. Apart from these, pH level and prevalence of solid wastes
could also be evaluated and analysed using these tests.
2.4.1 Analysis of overall quality of river water sources
Water sample records of possible contaminants in up and downstream of rivers in the UK show
the distinct contrast in response to multiple rainfall events. Transformation in water quality
owing to rainfall depends on precipitation levels and patterns. In addition to this, a change in
water quality is mostly affected by discharge from peripheral dams and industrial sewage plants.
Excessive accumulation of silts also contributes in water pollution. Erosion and sedimentation
are some of the natural processes that occur in case of stream flow. It has also been observed that
gravel as well as cobble-sized sediments is beneficial for the underwater aquatic ecosystem.
Implementation of reuse protocols in the industries can pose challenges in the form of ethical
barriers regarding documentation and technical expertise. As stated by McDowell et al., (2016),
effective management of water quality of rivers can be influenced by first flush of rainfall after a
dry season.
The riverside industries are required to filter their components in order to prevent any adverse
impact on ecosystem. Various petrochemicals are liberated into the riversides on a regular basis
from these industries that have a detrimental impact on the ecosystem. Multiple measurement
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methods of river water quality are built on national as well as international platforms. The
physicochemical properties of river water in the UK are analysed in compliance of Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs (Miscellaneous Amendments and Revocations) Regulations 2018.
Dadson et al., (2016) frequent variations in quality parameters like pH, alkalinity, and dissolved
oxygen, organic and metal content are measures. As stated by Smolders et al., (2015) samples of
river water is rendered suitable for chemical appraisal and is usually considered free from
extrinsic contaminants.
2.4.2 Water sampling programmes
Programmes of water sampling like UK Chemical Investigation Programme can establish precise
representative scenario of water quality from a particular source (UKWIR, 2018). The increment
in these levels of contaminants in river water can be barricaded by timely recognition through
water sampling tests. Analytical observations of Miller & Hutchins (2017) indicate significant
changes in assayed samples in regards to the chemical composition have evidenced the need for
frequent samplings. Results of Watson (2015) show that the water quality of the rivers in the UK
is mostly tested through grab sampling methods. Water Hygiene Services reviews the probable
potability appraisal prior to the use of the water (Water Hygiene Services, 2018). Sustainable
sampling of river water in prominent cities in the UK can explain the effect of rain water pouring
in the river beds.
Similarly, Lapworth et al., (2017) added that natural sources of water, like rivers, can be tested to
assure their safety for various purposes like drinking and cooking. In addition to this, effective
sampling and appraisal technique of UK Environment Agency to prevent the addition of external
contamination govern wastewater management through Water Framework Directive
2000/60/EC. River water should also be tested for dissolved air pollutants that usually are found
in rainwater. Monitoring of environmental effects is necessary to ensure the damaging effects of
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wastewater are not beyond the hazard levels (DeFries & Nagendra, 2017). Monitoring and
welfare protocols are established in rivers to evaluate trends in their quality and environment.
2.4.3 Analysis of the river water quality in the UK
It has been found that river water of the UK is of the highest standard, it is considered as one of
the best potability in the world. The people in the UK can turn on the taps with a certainty of
safety, refreshing supply. The directives are based on the world health organisation and are being
regularly reviewed (Gov.uk, 2018). The latest record of water quality compliance in naturally
occurring water bodies in England and Wales is 99.96%, whereas Scotland has 99.91% and in
Northern Ireland, 99.86 % is being provided (Gov.uk, 2018). As stated by Bieroza et al., (2018),
the water directives are being transposed to the UK through the primary legislation that is being
specific to the four devolved administrations.
2.4.4 River water monitoring measures in England and Wales
International Water Management Institute is one of the non-profit scientific research
organisations that look after the river water equality. This IWMI is one of the leading centres for
CGIAR which is a global research partnership in order to secure food and water (IWMI, 2018).
These government body controls pollution of water resources and is also responsible for flood
management. Moreover, this government body also ensures the surrounding industries do not
pollute water bodies. Naden et al., (2016) commented that these industries seem to liberate high
amount of carbon and sulphur particles that contaminate water bodies. Moreover, several
household activities also liberates huge amount of toxic chemicals into the water bodies. It is
essential for these governmental bodies to analyse the impact of extensive exposure to these
toxic chemicals. Xu et al., (2014) opined that combustion of fossil fuels produces huge amount
of mercuric compounds along with carbon material that even harm of the water resources.
Ockenden et al. (2014:54-62) stated that surveillances are essential and effective in order to
prevent detrimental impact on water bodies. Therefore, it needs to be assured by these
governmental bodies to reduce water contamination.
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2.5 Variations in water management techniques
It has been observed by Cao et al., (2015), that in the UK the water industry manages more than
16 billion litres of wastewater in a day. This includes ranges of the process such as collecting,
processing, and returning to the environment. The treatment is being applied based on the
sustainability of the local conditions of the place. The investment by the government of UK in
sewerage services reached more than 39 billion by 2015 (Defra year?).
Figure 2.4: Changes in chemical river quality for the countries in the UK
(Source: Ferati et al., 2015)
The above figure has shown that chemical contents in the quality of river water in UK have been
increasing gradually over the span of four years. It excludes the expenditure in the infrastructure
maintenance to ensure sustainable and proficient recycling of wastewater. This diagram
showcases the changes in river water quality during a span of 4 years. The data reveals regarding
the increasing rate of water contamination that has overall impacted the river water quality
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system. An increased rate of agricultural and industrial wastes has accumulated into the river
water thereby resulting in water contamination.
The wastewater in the UK is being treated to the required quality levels that help in protecting or
improving the coastal waters and rivers. As stated by Ferati et al. (2015: 338), the changes in
chemical content has been influenced by the amount of rainwater pouring into the river over the
span of four years. The sewage treatment centres are responsible for maintaining and improving
the public sewers that are most severe in the UK population. It has been observed that about 96%
of the UK population is being connected to the sewers that lead to the sewage treatment works.
2.6 Legislation related to wastewater and pollution management
The law in England requires river water to be clear enough to settle down at the maximum
acceptable concentration. According to section 11 of Flood and Water Management Act 2010, it
is mandated that dumping of open sewage in rivers prohibited. The presence of a number of
potential contaminants should be checked for by local authorities and manage the sewage
expulsion procedures of peripheral industries. Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC mandates
the member states of European Union to attain proficient quantitative and qualitative status of the
water bodies. Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 2017 helps to review standards to
influence necessary changes on prevalent waste treatment systems. As per the requirements of
Water Act 2014 (Section 3), data relevant to water quality management must be involved in
public reporting. Lastly, the action that must be taken by the government in case the standards is
exceeded. All the parameters of the water quality are being tested in a routine manner. Similarly,
Section 6A of Water Act 2014 has been used to amend gaps in industrial sewage expulsion that
have been presented in Water Industry Act 1991 Section 6. This has modified stricter laws to the
management and prevention of water quality reduction.
2.6.1 Water Act 2014
24

The UK government has formulated this mentioned legislation in order to prevent excessive
water pollution. Roig et al., (2016 commented that Integration Pollution Control Board of UK
has taken initiative in order to curb down water pollution in England and Wales. The main aim of
this legislation is to increase resilience of water supplies and manage water contamination.
Moreover, the water industries also need to be reformed and imply certain innovative measures
that could hinder accumulation of wastes into the river bed.
● Controlling water bodies
● Water protection zones
● Abstraction licenses
These provisions have been developed in order to protect water bodies from getting
contaminated by human activities. It has been observed that most of the river beds are being
polluted due to immense human activities. Michailova, Ilkova, Dean & White (2015) stated that
various household and industrial activities liberates huge amount of toxic metals into the
surrounding water bodies. Apart from this, huge amount of agricultural and industrial wastes
have affected the river quality. Therefore, these industries required incorporating some of the
innovatige techniques in order to manage this water pollution. Therefore, this legislation imposes
rules to industrial and household activities in order to prevent water contamination in England.
2.6.2 Water Act 1989
25

The government of UK has proposed a legislation that controls disposal of wastes within the
water bodies. Cairns (2017:69) commented that Director General of water services takes care of
the waste disposal thereby preventing water contamination. Furthermore, the industrial and
household wastes need to be disposed of properly so that water does not get contaminated. In
addition to this, cross boundary sewers are also allocated in UK in order to control this water
contamination. Deposition of wastes into water bodies affects the aquatic ecosystem. Higher
occurrence of aquatic deaths has been encountered in UK. Moreover, microplastics are also
being accumulated at higher rate.
The UK government has taken an initiative in order to ban plastic consumption to secure water
bodies. Use of plastic straws and cotton swabs has been banned in order to reduce water
pollution. Moreover, these are non-renewable sources that cannot be decomposed by nature.
Therefore, this accumulation also has a detrimental impact on land. Martin-Ortega et al., (2015)
opined that landfills have been another major issue of UK residents. Most of the time, these
people dump their waste into land that get seeped into water bodies after rainfall.
2.7 Impact of river water quality on health
Water quality is significant to health of animals and humans. The concept of river water
management and drinking water is closely related as people use river water as a source for
drinking water. In developed nations this is processed in water treatment plants, by comparison
in developing nations, the population often utilises unboiled and tainted water. Human as well as
animal wastes have resulted in increased rate of water contamination which required to be
properly managed. According to Hallett, Valesini, Clarke & Hoeksema, (2016), water quality is a
basic characteristic of river water that can determine life suitability and ability to be used. Short-
term effects involve being exposed to a plethora of viruses and bacteria that can pose a
detrimental effect on human health.
26

Some ailments like Cholera can prove to be lethal to babies or geriatric patients if appropriate
intervention is not implemented on time. Cao, Raith & Griffith, (2015) state that polluted water
can give rise to water-related ailments, such as diarrhoea, cholera, bacterial dysentery and
typhoid that are often contagious in nature. The NHS records for about 128 deaths that have
occurred in the period of last five years in the UK due to the usage of untreated river water
(NHS, 2018). This is a common occurrence in suburban, rural or countryside areas that
demonstrate poorer socioeconomic conditions of the inhabitants (particularly in rural and
developing areas). Impact on aquatic ecology due to higher turbidity and cloudy particles from
rainwater can reduce oxygen content in the river water. Hence, it can make it difficult for natural
flora (water plants and animals) to survive.
2.8 Effects of rainfall on water bodies
Rainfall helps in affecting both the temperature and salinity of the river water. Addition of non-
salty water on the surface helps in diluting saltiness of water near that surface. According to
Zhao, Liu, Wu, Li & Guan (2017), the addition of water having different temperature helps in
altering the temperature of water bodies. Over the time, diffusion of heat and salt that has been
combined due to the mixing of currents, waves, and wind helps in bringing the water bodies back
into equilibrium. Therefore, the effects of rainfall on the water bodies are transient. Lu et al.
(2015) argued that rainwater also helps in diluting the chemicals or pollutants in water bodies.
However, increased rainfall can deteriorate the quality of water and leads flooding of adjoining
areas. Heavy rainfall pollutes the water bodies and results in the scarcity of drinking water.
Presence of increased industries and factories has resulted in increased pollution, leading to the
formation of acid rain. Acid rain makes water acidic and leads in absorbing aluminum as it goes
from soil into streams and lakes.
Increased rate of pollution have resulted in the occurrence of acid rain. Huge proportions of
carbon and nitrates from industrial and automobile exhausts have overall impacted the
environment. These contaminants pollute the environment and reacts with the available water
27

vapour thereby resulting in the formation of acid rain. This acid rain is no only harmful for
humans but even pollute the environment. Aquatic system and river water get contaminated
under the impact of acid rain. The dissolved oxygen levels also get lowered thereby resulting in
eutrophication and biomagnification which overall affects the aquatic system.
2.8.1 Impact of acid rain on water contamination in UK
Water bodies become acidic when its pH value goes down as the water and its surrounding soil is
unable to neutralize acid rain. As for example, a pH value of 5 has the ability to kill fishes and its
lower level of killing adult fish. Sarda & Sadgir (2015) stated that low pH level not only kills
aquatic organisms but also has a severe effect on the terrestrial animals who feed on aquatic
organisms. Due to intense acidic nature of water bodies, aquatic animals decrease leading to the
imbalance in the diffusion of gases in water bodies. Younger species in the water bodies are
more prone to acidity than the adult ones. Ramos, Gracia, Ortiz, González-Chávez & Iturbe
(2018) argued that due to the more acidic nature of water bodies, aquatic animals cannot survive
and find it difficult to get phytoplankton and other aquatic animals for food. Acidic waters have
the tendency of absorbing aluminum that has been leached from runoff, therefore a combination
of acidic and aluminum is very harmful to aquatic organisms (Guillod, Orlowsky, Miralles,
Teuling, & Seneviratne, 2015). It has been found that acid rain not only has an adverse effect on
water bodies but also on the soil.
High acidity especially disposition of sulfur accelerates the conversion of mercury in deadliest
form like methyl mercury which is a neurological toxin (Battarbee et al. 2015:230). This
conversion is evident in water-saturated soils and wetlands where the low intensity of oxygen
leads to ideal conditions for methyl mercury formation. Low concentration of Methyl mercury in
zooplankton and phytoplankton gets accumulated in fat cells of organisms which consume them.
Anderson et al. (2015:1418) stated that Methyl mercury bioaccumulation in fishes tissues is the
28

reason for governmental health bodies to reduce the consumption of fish from marine and fresh
waters. Due to these adverse effects of acid rain on water bodies, it is required for the
governmental agencies to understand the areas which are prone to risks. Acid rains can be
reduced if the surrounding industries emit less pollutive substances and treat them before letting
out.
2.8.2 Impact of rainfall on combined sewer overflows
Evidence of high intensity events of rainfall has been noted by Berry et al. (2018: 40) in the areas
around River Tame. This high intensity rainfall over shorter duration can be responsible for an
increase in inflow derived from rainfall in aging sewers. Combined sewerage systems allow run-
offs to be carried through a single sewerage conduit. Johnson et al. (2015:747-755) opined that
combined sewer systems collect domestic sewages along with rainfall water. Furthermore, these
sewer systems also store industrial wastewater so that they do not get mixed with water system.
Smith et al. (2017) added that waste water sewage contains huge portions of bacteria and viruses
that have detrimental impact on health provision. However, separate systems use multiple
conduits for sewage and rainwater run-off. Excessive rainfall causes these combined sewage
systems to overflow thereby spilling its contents into the surrounding river bodies. Pascoe &
Edwards (2015) opined that most of the time, these combined sewage systems transport their
waste materials into a sewage treatment plant. This plant helps in detoxifying the waste materials
thereby making the water harmless. Morgan & Nearing (2016:78) asserted that excessive rainfall
affects these sewage facilities thereby contaminating the surrounding river bed.
The solitary use of combined sewers in the areas around River Tame leads to sewer overflow and
poor sanitation. Miller & Hutchins (2017) present a generalised frame to assess and mitigate the
effects of intense rain on the networks of combined sewers. The framework includes hydraulic
modelling that can evaluate performances of these networks. This is followed by an
improvement of CSO (combined sewer overflow) mitigation techniques that are derived from an
environmental design approach. by McDowell et al. (2016) demonstrate utilisation of the
29

hydraulic model and shows that rain water can be found seeping into groundwater table and
gradually into the sewer network during alternative wet and dry years. Howard et al. (2016)
stated that excessive rainfall also causes agricultural runoff. Carstea, Bridgeman, Baker &
Reynolds (2016) added that farmers use huge amounts of fertilizers and pesticides in order to
yield high food products. Excessive rainfall causes these harmful chemicals to enter into the
water bodies thereby causing contamination. Therefore, it can be said that this changed rainfall
patterns and prevalence of acid rain have overall affected the water quality of river Tame.
2.9 Summary
The previously published literature discussed about the possible interventions and analytical
methods of sewage water treatment to uplift the condition of river water in the UK. However,
negligible amount of research is found to compare water quality of a river with flow rate, river
level and rainfall. Similarly, a rare amount of studies have noted the effect of rainwater on
declining quality of river system. Wastewater treatments have been discussed in the works of
Hering et al. (2015), though their credibility is yet to be measured. The researcher has tried to
address these gaps in the present study.
The treatment of water is necessary for considering the public health. The contamination
recognition processes can be very helpful to control the pollution in water level. The researcher
has shed light on the issues related to river water pollution, categorising the pollutants on the
basis of their nature and solubility. Impact of intense rainfall is also evaluated in the perspective
of a combined sewer overflow. Appropriate sewage management, treatment and discharge of
wastewater have been proposed as possible improvement mechanisms of river water quality in
the UK.
30

2.12 Conceptual framework
Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework
(Source: Created by the Researcher)
Here, the conceptual framework shows the necessary theories and methods that have been used
to understand water quality management and prevent pollution of river water in the UK. The
concept of water pollution is linked to management of river water and is then narrowed down to
the specifics of the chosen river of UK.
31

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The research methodology follows a systematic implementation of a review protocol. This
chapter describes multiple methodological considerations that the researcher has decided upon to
conduct thorough research. The researcher has used post-positivism research philosophy and
deductive approach in order to carry out this study. The data sets of river Tame has been
obtained after reviewing from several research articles. Descriptive research design was selected
by the researcher for understanding and obtaining information regarding the causes behind
adverse water equality in the river Tame. The researcher has taken help from statistical tools and
software in order to analyse water quality data thereby analysing quality management. Therefore,
this chapter presents the chosen research philosophy, approach, sample type, and instruments.
3.2 Research onion
Research onion involves several methods and steps that are required by the researcher in order to
formulate an effective methodology. Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2010) provides a set of
techniques and methods in this research onion that will be guide a researcher for accomplishing
tasks. Research philosophies gave a set of beliefs and ideas that are required to be undertaken
while carrying out any research study. Similarly, research approach and design also guided the
researcher to obtain information and strategize them effectively to obtain effective results.
Finally, data collection tools and methods also provided the researcher an insight regarding the
use of primary and secondary methods in order to obtain and analyse information related to
water quality management in UK.
32

Figure 3.1: Research onion
(Source: Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2010)
3.2 Research philosophy
Three major types of philosophies that can drive research are positivism, interpretivism, and
realism. The present study makes use of post-positivism that ensures retrieval of information
related to the issue. It aids the researcher to develop a standardized study and reduce bias.
Justification
Post-positivism is chosen to minimize errors and conclude findings through scientific and
statistical methods (Flick, 2015). Post-positivism philosophy helped the researcher to develop
and present a set of beliefs that are required for conducting a research study. Furthermore, it has
been observed that various forms of contamination and use of pesticides in agriculture have
impacted the water equality of surrounding river bodies in UK. This set of belief is required for
the researcher while carrying out this specific study. Moreover, the interpretation of data is not
carried out in this study. Thus, the researcher has selected post-positivism research philosophy.
33

3.3 Research approach
The researcher has chosen the deductive research approach to arrive at a specific conclusion
from the reviewed literature. Research approaches are subdivided into the inductive and
deductive approach. As commented by Silverman (2016), the deductive approach enables the
formulation of deductions from prevalent theories to achieve an understanding of the issue. On
the contrary, the inductive approach helps to formulate the theories influenced by findings.
Justification
In this case, the researcher has selected the deductive approach to deduce the results. It has been
observed that excessive rainfall results in sewer overflow into surrounding water bodies that
ultimately causes water contamination and this could be justified using deductive research
approach. Furthermore, the accumulation of several organic and inorganic wastes from industrial
and agricultural activities also causes water pollution. Data related to water quality of
surrounding water bodies are already available and therefore, further invention of this context is
insignificant. The already established methods and strategies regarding wastewater treatment and
water management had been detailed in the literature review section of this study. The choice of
a deductive approach for this study is justified by the need to recognize and evaluate deductions
from existing data.
3.4 Research design
The research design is a particular method that helps to frame a study in a definite manner of
conduction. There are three designs for a research study; namely, descriptive, exploratory and
explanatory. A proper follow-up of research design is significant as it guides any researcher to
formulate and strategize essential data within any research study. Similarly, this case, the
researcher carried out this study to analyse the quality and river water in UK and management
techniques employed by the residents to improve quality of water. This research design can be
used only in those conditions where all the results could be available from a range of resources.
34

In this case, the researcher has used an descriptive study design in order to analyse prevalent
water quality management in UK river bodies.
Justification
This design helps the investigator to provide an appropriate structure to retrieve the results. The
choice is justified as it facilitates data collection from multiple sources. Furthermore, in this case,
the researcher has used descriptive research design to understand and evaluate the different water
quality management. Sewer overflow have a detrimental impact on the water bodies and the
water get highly contaminated under this impact. Descriptive research design has been used by
the learners in order to analyse information and data regarding this adverse water quality in UK
and their management techniques that could be used in order to mitigate these issues. In addition
to this, it has also been observed that there are several man-made and industrial factors that
contribute to water pollution and this will also be evaluated in this study using a descriptive
research design.
3.5 Research strategy
According to Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill (2010), a secondary data review must be driven by a
step-by-step protocol. An action research strategy is implemented to recommend improvements
in the prevalent strategies of water management plans. Action research strategy has been used by
the learner in this study for analysing the present water quality management strategies and
techniques that are employed. Furthermore, new recommendations in the form of strategies are
essential in order to mitigate this water quality issue in river Tame. The researcher has used
action research to solve the immediate problem of river water pollution and its management
through a reflective protocol. New management methods and techniques are formulated by the
researcher for solving and improving water quality of the water bodies in UK. Reports suggested
that water quality of river Tame has been significantly impacted due to the huge amount of sewer
35

overflow and acid rain. Therefore, new techniques and methods are required to be formulated
that could make end of this issue and improve water quality.
3.6 Time horizon
Time horizons of a study related to the span of time that has been kept in consideration during
data collection. Time horizons can be either longitudinal or cross-sectional. The researcher has
chosen longitudinal time horizon for this study (influenced by Abbaspour et al., 2015). This has
enabled the researcher to accept random studies on this issue from various points in time. In
longitudinal research study, the learner observes and gathers information for several decades. In
this study, water quality of river Tame has been tested for evaluating management issues.
Moreover, the main causative factors behind this extensive water contamination also required to
be reviewed and understood. This could be facilitated after reviewing the water quality for
several months and years. Therefore, longitudinal research method has been used by the
researcher for carrying out an extensive research and obtaining information related to the water
quality issues.
3.7 Data collection tools and techniques
Accumulation of data is the foremost tool to implement a research study. According to Taylor,
He & Hiscock (2015), the credibility of research is influenced by the validity of the information
accumulated for the study. The data was collected through online databases such as NCBI,
SCOPUS and Taylor and Francis. NCBI and SCOPUS provide authentic and relevant journal
articles that could be used for better analysis in this study. In this research study, 15 journal
articles have been evaluated by the researcher to understand water pollution that is prevalent in
the UK. This data will help the researcher to understand and evaluate the current scenario of
water pollution. Inclusion criteria involve accepting peer-reviewed articles published in English
after 2014. Exclusion criteria involved grey literature and the lack of credible data resource.
36

3.8 Data analysis tools and techniques
Primary and secondary data collection methods are used extensively in any research study. Duan
et al., (2016) commented that a primary research method implies several survey and interview
data that could help in any research study. In the case of primary data analysis, questionnaires
from participants are taken for better and relevant evaluation. Fliedner et al., (2016) opined that
secondary data collection also helps in effective analysis of information taken from several
books and journals. In this case, the researcher has taken information from several research
articles regarding water quality management and causative factors behind water contamination.
Statistical information regarding water quality issues and their prevalent management techniques
helped the researcher to find out loopholes in water quality management. Therefore, this
information helped the researcher to draw an effective conclusion related to this research topic.
Analysis of accumulated data is critical for every study. This is because the conclusions of any
research are essentially based on the evaluation and appraisal of the collected information
(influenced by Wahyuni, 2012). For this research, the investigator has used statistical software
and tools to deduce whether the chosen parameters of rainfall, river flow, and level have any
effect on the water quality of River Tame. The researcher in this case, carried out statistical test
for evaluating water quality of river Tame. Sewage overflow rate as well as rainfall is some of
the essential parameters that are required in order to evaluate the extent of quality issues in the
river Tame. Besides, the researcher has also provided theoretical concepts from several research
articles to evaluate qualitative information from existing literature to gain insight and enhance
the validity and accuracy of the study (influenced by Bowes et al., 2015). The inclusion and
exclusion criteria for this research study are as follows-
The inclusion criteria-
37

● Current statistical records
● The research articles are current and not older than 2014
● The included journals and articles provide relevant and validated information regarding
the human and industrial factors that lead to water pollution
Exclusion criteria-
● Any research journals older than 2014 are not included in this study
● Older statistical records are not included in this research study as this could result in
errors
● Any research journal that contains irrelevant information related to the concerned topic
are not included in this study
3.9 Accessibility, credibility and reliability
The researcher has retrieved information from credible data repositories and relevant research
articles to ensure accessibility and reliability of data. Some journal articles could not be accessed
due to the purchase-only access policy of the data repositories. Research has been conducted
within a finite geographical location that limited the researcher to evaluate the impact of chosen
parameters from other rivers or natural water sources. In case of such water quality topics, more
38

extensive research on other water bodies of various geographic locations are required for better
analysis.
3.10 Reliability and validity
In this research paper, the researcher has validated information and data related to the river water
quality management of the river Tame. Several information and data has been collected using
secondary research methods in order to evaluate the prevalence of water contaminants.
Furthermore, several articles and WHO papers have been evaluated in order to analyse the extent
of river water contamination. WHO and NHS papers would provide detailed information
regarding the mentioned topic. Therefore, it can be said that the information that has been
included in this paper are validated and have high reliability.
3.11 Summary
In the present chapter, the researcher has defined specific research tools and methods used to
conduct a study in a standardized and systematic manner. Researcher ensures to create a link
between the issue and the various methods in case of water quality management. Use of multiple
tools and techniques has ensured that the study has followed an appropriate pathway. Secondary
data comparison is done for the research methodology. With the help of statistical tools and
secondary research articles, the researcher was able to analyse information regarding the various
water quality issues.
39

CHAPTER 4: DATA FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
Water pollution refers to the act of contamination of natural resources through widespread
human or natural activities. Sociological and environmental issues can also be resolved to
minimise the scope of significant threats. This protocol fundamentally changes the dynamics of
the estuaries in the context of sedimentation rates and patterns.
4.2 Findings
River Tame originated at Oldbury from where it flows east towards Tamworth. The catchment
covers 1500 km². Cooke, Welch, Peterson & Nichols (2016) state almost 42% of the river basin
has undergone urbanisation that also explains the heavy canalisation of the natural water source.
Until the 19th century, Tame has provided rich scope for the fishery. Rapid expansion across the
catchment area gives rise to a surplus number of iron and steel plants that contributed to
widespread pollution. According to Watts et al., (2015), this has given rise to the occurrence of
acid rains that worsened the condition of Tame. The observations are used to devise strategies for
an innovative water quality management option along the banks of River Tame. River Boards
Act 1948 mandated appropriate sewage disposal in heavy industries. The changes in local
legislation have considerably enhanced water quality. The findings from the concentrations of
pollutants in various monitoring sites of River Tame is analysed through SPSS. It is seen that in
consideration of normal runoff areas, turbidity is lower in comparison to local water bodies. In
case of around 20 mm rainfall, turbidity in case of upstream water is seen to have increased in
consideration to approximately 160 NTU (nephelometric turbidity unit).
4.2.1 Concentrations of pollutants and its relation to turbidity
40

The pollutant concentrations and turbidity are considered at normal levels. Samples can
influence tower intake to be at unaffected levels, under active runoff events. These observations
reach up to 579 m³/s during added turbidity up to 359 NTU. The water quality inflow has seen
to have deteriorated with the increase in turbidity. Concentrations of carbon, phosphorus and
oxygen have heightened up to 7.2 mg/l, 0.2 mg/L, and 6.2 mg/L, respectively (Hanif et al.,
2016). The significant increment in rainfall has influenced the catchment to increase, with
corresponding turbidity amounting at 139 NTU. The water source of Tame is at Oldbury that
runs with the confluence at Trent near the Alrewas. However, main length of the river is gauged
through the catchment area. Hence, Tame with its tributaries is recorded approximately for 285
kilometres. Mei et al., (2018) state the course of river follows through diverse biogeographical
terrains and are exposed to rain on its path that remains fairly uncovered by dense forests. This
accounts for the large number of dissolved pollutants that can be carried by rainfall and storm
runoff that flows into river.
Source Type III
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig. Partial
Eta
Squared
Noncent.
Parameter
Observed
Powerb
Corrected
Model 865056.200a 15 57670.413 2.123 .244 .888 31.851 .288
41

Intercept 878322.298 1 878322.298 32.340 .005 .890 32.340 .984
rainfall 29768.000 1 29768.000 1.096 .354 .215 1.096 .129
concentration 531760.886 14 37982.920 1.399 .405 .830 19.579 .200
Error 108636.750 4 27159.188
Total 1880647.000 20
Corrected
Total 973692.950 19
42

a. R Squared = 0.888 (Adjusted = .470)
b. Computed with alpha = 0.05
Table 4.2.1: Subject effects of rainfall and turbidity
(Source: Given by Researcher)
In the above graph, the dependent variable is considered to be turbidity. In a generalised manner,
temperatures of the inflowing surface water are considered higher than bottom water. The
undercurrent of the surface water can amount to a smaller mix of rain and river water before
draining into the catchment. Pokhrel et al., (2016) record a yearly rainfall for two consecutive
years, with average rainfall of 107 mm that influenced the inflow to be approximately 579 cubic
metres per second. The undercurrent flows into primary course of the river and maintains an
average of 40 metre thickness per unit water column. In this case, river water flow rate has been
considered hourly. As opined by Posthuma et al., (2018), difference in temperature of the vertical
water can be rapidly compressed through the mixing process that continues to decrease the
difference. In the presence of heavy rainfall, this difference in temperature is reduced to nearly
4°C. The column of water is in a continuous phase of mixing. Thus, stratified structures of major
river ways are found damaged by the corrosive contents in the water. Corsi, De Cicco, Lutz &
Hirsch (2015) observe subsurface disturbance of river water by rainfall and storms can increase.
The subsurface flows are considered in high turbidity that shows 264 NTU as the mean reading.
43

4.3 Analysis
Several governmental water management protocols and waste management systems have The
water bodies remove pollutants like heavy metals from water to improve quality. The quality
management project provides ample opportunities to enhance the environment for wildlife and
people through mutual collaboration (Kleinman et al. 2015: 297-310). Various researchers have
collected water sample in order to test their turbidity and concentration of water pollutants.
Furthermore, this concentration of river pollutants affects the marine organisms.
Biomagnification often hinder the normal exposure of marine organisms to natural daylight.
Inadequate sunlight and dissolved oxygen concentration further attributes in eutrophication. This
eventually raises the biological oxygen demand for the specified water body eventually affecting
the marine ecosystem.
As seen above, rainfall has contributed to clouding of Tame and introducing dissolved toxic
gases into the water body. Furthermore, Putro, Kjeldsen, Hutchins & Miller (2016) state flow of
River Tame has affected dissolved oxygen content in its water. Total debris and sediment mass
carried by the river has been steered by the flow that has seen a significant reduction over the
years due to industrial pollution. Transformations in frequency and magnitude of river flow can
be used to assess the impact of sediments and dissolved materials in the river. Darling & Bowes
(2016) use observations of precipitation and downscaled it to an appropriate hydrological
simulation. The data findings of Bowes et al., (2016) reveal the usage of the multimodel
ensemble to evaluate changes in rainfall, dividing the impact on water quality through
segregation into varying parameters. The multiple regression analysis reveals the impact of each
of the chosen parameters on the quality of water in River Tame.
However, in consideration of the runoff conditions after rains, it is seen that turbidity has
increased up to 359 NTU. According to Dadson et al., (2017), runoff processes influence the
course of water flow into reservoir. Turbidity of the water gradually decreases up to smaller
rainfall incidents that are recorded during the monsoons of 2016. Maximum total organic carbon
concentrations at Tame in its upstream waters are observed to be 5.1 mg/L (Li, Wang, Bennett &
44

Robertson, 2015). This can induce added inflow to reservoirs, the volumes of which is directly
proportional of rate of pollutant reduction. In the main reservoirs of Tame, maximum total
concentration of dissolved oxygen and phosphorus is found to be nearly 4.2 mg/L and 0.036
mg/L, respectively.
4.3.1 Mix of undercurrents with surface water
This has started to mix with the normal river flow that hikes the mean turbidity of water column
that enhances from 5 NTU to 131 NTU. The process of mixing of the river water with its
undercurrent has been completed through the average turbidity of water column which has risen
to 65 NTU and later to 30 NTU. The pH value of river Tame decreased from 7.29 to 5.62,
shortly after the rainfall. Similar trends are also observed in case of turbidity and concentration
of dissolved oxygen. During and after rainfall, turbidity and concentrations of dissolved aerosols
rise significantly. Average concentrations have risen from 0.053 mg/L to 0.107 mg/L. The
concerning data that has been observed by Zhang et al., (2016) is considered through bottom
water levels that reach 0.224 mg/L. High amount of granular materials can be influenced by
rainfall runoffs in case of enhanced concentration. Human and animal excrements are also one of
the main contaminants that arise from ground runoffs after a spell of rain. As mentioned above,
mean concentrations at the sampling depths can be enhanced to obtain an overall documentation
of the water quality of Tame.
The concentration of dissolved organic carbon particles in bottom water is measured through
similar parameters that are used to measure the undercurrents. As stated by Hallett et al. (2016:
267-284), molecules of suspended organic matters in the water account for a majority of toxicity.
The study of Putro et al., (2016) state artificial source of metal pollution in upstream regions of
River Tame have shed light on the degrading quality of its water. This can be reiterated in the
form of metal concentration evaluation before and after rainfall. As commented by Watts et al.,
(2015), undercurrents with reduced metallic concentrations can be mixed with river water. This
fact is offered through the explanation for rapid consumption of dissolved oxygen in Tame,
45

especially in levels of bottom water after rainfall. Concentrations of manganese and iron ions
have decreased from 0.32 mg/L and 0.97 mg/L 0.38 mg/L and 0.18 mg/L, respectively. These
recordings are documented before and after a spell of shower. In this case, high concentrations of
dissolved metal can decrease concentrations of iron and manganese ions. These were released
from the sediments in reduced states. These ions are oxidised by undercurrent through dissolved
oxygen concentration. Sedimentation of oxides can be also considered for this decrease.
4.4 Discussion
Rainfall is considered as a considerable source of change in the quality of river water. Runoffs
resulting from rainfall can enhance, degrade or alter water quality of rivers. As stated by
Blenkinsop, Lewis, Chan & Fowler (2017), this can be influenced by the nature of land use, soil
type, slope, presence of impervious surfaces, intensity and duration of rainfall events. Utilisation
of multiple data sets that are retrieved from published literature and government reports help to
shed light on the parameters of water quality. Bussi et al., (2016) suggest this can be driven by
weekly frequencies of water sampling. The correlations have helped to determine the parameters
of rainfall and water quality of river Tame. Champion, Allan & Lavers (2015) consider wet
sampling events to be more proficient that 0.1 inches of rain within last 72 hours of sampling
incidents. Additional information is collected by Fezzi, Harwood, Lovett & Bateman, (2015)
from hydrogeology stations near Oldbury. The sample stations on River Tame and its tributaries
are sampled at regular intervals of 12 hours. The intervals after rain events can be used more
precisely to define rainfall on the parameters of water quality management.
46

Figure 4.3.1: Hydrograph of precipitation discharge on river water
(Source: Tilburg et al., 2015)
As given by the above mentioned graph, rainfall has shown high values in correlation with peak
rainfall, precipitation discharge and time. Results shed light on the fact that correlations of water
quality of Tame versus rainfall occurs in case of long hours of rain. Marsalek et al., (2014)
Reduced sampling events can give rise to less than 0.2 inches, which occur between the range of
24 and 72 hours before sampling incidents. This concurs through a stable growth in forest
watersheds that creates little to no correlations between the parameters of rainfall and water
quality. Watersheds in case of transitions can create agricultural and forest sprawls to produce a
correlation with 24 hour-rainfalls and turbidity. River Tame has shown a varied dataset with
reference to secondary parameters such as prevalence of livestock grazing in neighbouring areas.
Non-point sources of pollution, for instance storm water runoffs can be considered as a serious
event for the water quality of River Tame.
4.4.1 Variations in water-air and water-soil interface
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Changes to the interface of land and water, in forms of deforestation and impervious coverage
can also influence degradation in the quality of rain. As opined by Tilburg, Jordan, Carlson,
Zeeman & Yund (2015), gradual enhancement in populations can be linked to degrading quality
of River Tame. Despite the convergence of the issue has not attained magnitude of other polluted
water bodies. 13% growth in the local industries has given rise to the levels of air pollution
around the river. Dadson et al. (2017: 183-186) point out the associated changes that has taken
place to land-water and air-water interfaces can impact quality of water in Tame. This is
considered as an economically and ecologically essential estuary, specifically during events of
heavy rainfall. The results from the studies of Putro et al. (2016: 164-172) have shed light on the
fact that rainfall events are considerable parameters to contribute faecal contamination in River
Tame through storm water runoffs.
Figure 4.3.2: Flow regimes of UK Rivers
48

(Source: National River Flow Archive, 2018)
Presence of significant increments in the correlation of ecological parameters around River Tame
is considered to be statistically significant. These values are evaluated through a two-tailed
ANOVA correlation using Pearson correlation of product moment. However, Posthuma et al.,
(2018) argue rainfall correlations should be implemented between the duration of 24 and 48
hours through Spearman coefficient analysis through salinity and turbidity. The findings of
Grizzetti et al., (2017) agree with additional primary reports from Oldbury and areas around
River Tame. This describes enhancing influence of storm water runoffs in contexts of
hydrological changes. A similar indentation is also available in the form of impervious coverage
of river surface water. Further evidence from the studies of Mekonnen & Hoekstra (2015)
demonstrate impact of rainwater runoff is offered through considerable interaction between
turbid concentrations and water-input parameters in Tame. Coliform bacteria are considered as
able faecal indicators that can be considerable in case of correlations with salinity, turbidity, and
dissolved oxygen rates. In addition to this, parameters with stronger relationships can be settled
by storm water runoffs while introducing rainwater to the river course.
4.4.2 Changes in turbidity and its effect on overall quality
As opined by Nicolaus et al., (2015), this causes enhancing turbidity due to particulate matter
transports from scouring nearby soils. Resuspension of sediments can occur through strong
winds or high flow that take place during rainfall events. Runoff can create reduction in salinity
and dissolved oxygen from freshwater inputs. This can cause a related reduction in biological
activity in the river. Similar correlations are found by the works of Osorio et al., (2016), who
records salinity and turbidity found in Tame show similar relationships. However Bussi et al.,
(2016) argue river water can be diluted by the introduction of rainfall that in turn, fluctuates with
tides. In addition to this, observed interaction between faecal contamination and rainfall are also
high during prolonged periods of rainfall. Parsaie & Haghiabi (2017) indicate the presence of a
49

background signal due to biological population in sediments that suggests contamination and
turbidity is persisting in the benthos.
Figure 4.3.3: Flow regimes of UK Rivers
(Source: Blenkinsop et al. 2017: 722-740)
The phenomenon is documented in sub-tropical as well as tropical areas that the river passes
through. Studies conducted by Robins et al., (2016), in the northern temperate areas reveal
survival and persistence coliform bacteria even in freezing temperatures with considerable
growths resuming in warmer months. The works thereby analyse the sediment populations in
River Tame to show similar results are observed in nearby estuaries with particles. The shallow
and well-mixed natures of turbidity values are observed over study courses in sediments that are
attached to particles responsible for baseline signals. Distance towards the riverbanks is a
significant parameter to determine degradation levels of concentrations in the aforementioned
50

river. The sampling sites can be primarily selected from sampled locations of the river. In
addition to this, the secondary spatial representations of sampling coordination can give rise to
the segregation of observations obtained in the study. This can be implemented in regions with
changing variations in soil quality and relate to statistically considerable contrasts.
4.4.3 Sampling of sites
Sampling is considered in the site closure and land areas distanced from likely influence of the
river. As opined by Szoszkiewicz et al., (2018), the site products can be considered in case of
land produces. In addition to this, lack of distinction is confounded through sampling facts that
did not allowed settlement for immediate samplings through events of rain. The samples that are
taken within 48 hours of concurring events of possible wind mixing and tidal flushing during
rainfalls. This may have dispersed through the sediments in river bed that influence future
studies. The examinations of Taylor, He & Hiscock (2016) are influenced by runoffs from
nearby riverbanks after the rainfall. This may involve rigorous sampling in the tributaries of
Tame. This kind of sampling can be considered in the duration of rain and storms to measure the
flow of quantification of microbial contaminants and their loading rates. Seasonal appraisals of
Mei et al., (2018) reveal atypical concentrations of faecal coliforms.
The datasets shed light on elevated concentrations of these coliforms after events of rainfall
during winter. This anomaly can be resulted from abnormally elevated levels of rainfall during
study periods. The likely contributors that explain the range of faecal contamination to wildlife
and livestock can be held responsible to contribute to several pathogens. This involves
neighbouring treatment plants for wastewater, which become burdened during heavy rainfall.
This releases faecal contaminants into Tame. Nevertheless, study of Blenkinsop et al., (2017)
emphasises overburdening of treatment plants can be associated to increased population in the
areas around the river. Tertiary features involve livelihoods for overall public safety and sample
concentrations that are kept open during status utilisation and classification of water harvesting.
51

Overall, this discussion can give rise to the facts that the data acknowledged from various articles
has shed light on the experience of water quality degradation. Rainwater runoffs are gathered to
be a primary contributor of faecal pollution. This can shed light on existence of persisting
bacterial parameters for the future studies. Application of molecular tools to indicate turbidity
and pathogenic strains can determine high concentrations of dissolved organic molecules. This is
indicative of threat on human health which involves a combination of governmental and research
efforts. These efforts may allow remediation of estuary through identification of problem areas
that utilise these datasets for restoration.
52

4.4 Summary
Based on the above information and its appraisal, it can be stated that water quality in a river can
shift with changes in climate. Events like rainfall and flow level can be influenced by the
presence of pollutants present in air and land surface. The projections influenced by the
statistical interaction between rainfall, river flow and water level can impact the quality of water
that flows through River Tame.
53

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
As stated above, it can be concluded that the quality of river water can be impacted by the flow,
rainfall and climate of the immediate environment. The strategies formulated can provide
sustainable management approaches for water quality and multiple other hazards to the local
inhabitants for the next 50 years along River Tame. It is thus recommended to make use of the
available resources to revise the management plan. The area plan can be considered in a wide
strategic view of water quality management and recognise to decrease the risk from degraded
water quality.
Proper planning and execution can help in reducing pollution and enhancing the quality of water.
The government needs to make stringent laws so that the industrial bodies install sewage and
water treatment plant for treating chemical wastes before letting in water bodies. Increasing
number of steel plants has resulted in heavy pollution, leading to acid rain. It is said that property
cannot come at the expense of water and environmental pollution. Rainfall is advantageous in
case of water pollution and it helps in neutralizing and diluting the pollution in water bodies.
However, heavy rainfall can increase water pollution as wastes from soil and land get into water
bodies, contaminating them for aquatic and terrestrial animals. Poor sanitation and flow of sewer
are the main reasons for water pollution in most of the areas of the UK. Industrial bodies need to
abide by environmental and pollution laws in order to better management of water and reducing
its pollution. It is found that quality of transformation of water is dependent on the level of
precipitation and pattern of rainfall.
54

5.2 Recommendation
This segment provides plausible improvements in management and implementation of river
Tame. This includes general principles like watershed management and reauthorization of
environmental legislation. The interventions are also applicable to local agencies involved in
management and watershed.
Figure 5.2.1: Recommendations
(Source: Given by Researcher)
It is recommended to enhance and protect riparian areas through the employment of sustainable
and ecological management practices, for example, a creation of buffer zones. In addition, it is
also advisable that local industrial organisations recognise relevant laws and frameworks prior to
allow mixing of sewage and groundwater.
Need to follow watershed management
The government needs to follow watershed management in order to enhance and protect the
quality of water through the management of water and land comprehensively and effectively.
This can help in controlling the pollution of the water bodies through the elimination of sources
of pollution. Small drainage basins need to be built in the watershed for reducing pollution and
enhancing water quality. Cooperation with local bodies is required for assessing and
understanding local needs regarding the use of water. In addition, awareness should be spread
regarding reducing wastage of water and improving its quality by adequate disposal systems.
Need to indulge in sustainable sewage disposal
Industries need to initiate sustainable sewage disposal so that microorganisms and bacteria can
digest the wastes and pollutants. The building of water treatment system is required so that
wastes can be treated through rushes and reeds. Biodigester should also be used for treating the
55

polluting water and improving its quality through separation of pollutants from water. It helps in
digesting of solid matter, reducing potentiality of wastes before treating greywater. It is required
for the individuals to use water effectively in order to reduce its wastage. Combination of
microorganisms, plants, gravel, and algae should be used instead of chemicals for treating
wastewater. It will help in reducing costs and use of harmful chemicals in treating polluted
water. It is required for the industrial bodies to use this method for treating their waste water
before letting them in water bodies.
Need to comply with environmental laws
The industries need to abide by environmental laws while installing their units in front of water
bodies. The government should not allow them to install their factories or units in front of water
bodies as they are more susceptible to pollutants. It is required for the individuals and industries
to abide by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and Control of Pollution Act 1974 in order to
reduce pollution of water bodies. Severe punishment should be given to those who fail to abide
by environmental laws. The government should inventive those industries that abide by
environmental regulations and protect water bodies near them.
Need to protect floodplains
Protection of floodplains helps in removing excess nutrients and sediments that can increase the
costs of treating water and degrade the quality of water. Water quality degradation leads to loss
of habitat in floodplains, leading to scarcity of animals. Floodplains are required to be improved
as it is the breeding grounds of many aquatic animals. Implementation of floodplains by design is
required for reducing private and public costs for reducing post-disaster damages and subsidizing
flood insurance. The areas regarding natural storage of floods should be protected for reducing
costs of levees and floodwalls. Healthy floodplains help in reducing water pollution that is
caused by floods.
56

Need to reduce industry aerosols
It is required for the industries to reduce their manufacturing of aerosols as rainfall has the ability
to contaminate water bodies through the dissolving of the chemicals of aerosols. The companies
should use degradable and eco-friendly packaging materials so as to reduce pollution of water
bodies. In addition, the consumer should be encouraged to reduce the use of plastics and
chemically harmful substances for reducing water pollution. Experiments should be done for
substituting the aerosols with other substances that are sustainable and environmentally useful.
In addition, effective disposal wastes should be done by the industries effectively for reducing
water pollution and improving the quality of water.
5.3 Objective Linking
● To conceptualise water quality management in the present economy: Water quality
management techniques are conceptualised using prevalent paradigms of sustainability and
resource protection. The researcher has shed light on plausible theories that can be employed
to formulate innovative designs and frameworks for managing quality control in river bodies.
Thus, this objective is met.
● To evaluate prevalent conditions of water in River Tame: Findings from the works of
various scholars have shed light on the conditions of River Tame. It has demonstrated the use
of an exploratory design that retrieved information on a wide area of relevant issues. Level of
organic activity, dissolved oxygen, the presence of pollutants is enlisted along with
intervention strategies that have been developed. Thus, the researcher has satisfied this
objective.
● To analyse the effect of flow rate, river level and rainfall on water quality: The
researcher has used statistical analysis to appraise the effect of flow rate, water level and
rainfall on the quality of the river water. The appraisal methods are further enriched by a
57

thematic analysis of qualitative records that confirms the effect in a natural water body. Thus,
this objective is satisfied by the present study.
● To recommend management strategies to reduce contamination levels in water: The
recommendation section suggests plausible strategies that can be employed to reduce
contamination levels in River Tame. Effective watershed management is a prominent
intervention in this issue. Thus, this objective has been met.
5.4 Limitation of the research
The limitation of this research is the lack of time and resource to implement a thorough study.
The time and budget bound nature of this study has restricted the searching area and duration of
the researcher. The researcher has not been able to get adequate time for doing effective
research. As a secondary method is used in this research, it has been difficult to get a sufficient
number of journals pertaining to the topic. In most of the cases, paid versions have been
available. Most of the journals contain only abstract or the information is not sufficient to serve
the purpose of the research. Besides time, the researcher has been short of the budget that has
hindered gathering and collection of more information pertaining to the topic. Inadequate
resources have limited the scope of this research.
5.5 Future scope
The future scope of this study is that the appraisals obtained can be further analysed to deduce
their impacts in a comprehensive manner. The impacts can be analysed in a variety of areas, like
environment, economy and health.
This study can help the researchers to understand the parameters which lead to water pollution
and degrade the quality of water. It provides a way for future researchers to conduct a more
intensive research regarding the causes of water pollution in this era of climatic change. The
study paves the way for individuals, government and industrial units to understand water
pollution in the UK and collaborate together to enhance the quality of water bodies. In addition,
58

this study helps in paving for alternative solutions and strategies that can help in effective
management of water and reducing its deterioration.
59

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