Improving Storm Water Quality through Water Sensitive Urban Design

This article discusses the implementation of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) to address challenges faced by current urban water sustainability systems. It covers the techniques, elements, and benefits of WSUD, including improving storm water quality, controlling flooding, and conserving water. The article also highlights the knowledge gaps impeding mainstream uptake of WSUD.

Running head: WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN
1
Improving Storm Water Quality through Water Sensitive Urban Design
Student’s name
Institution affiliation

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 2
Improving Storm Water Quality through Water Sensitive Urban Design
Abstract
For more than 100 years, there has been an implementation of centralized water that is in
large scale, waste waters as well as systems of storm water. The systems have been of great
importance because they have provided a supply of safe water for drinking, a very efficient and
effective collection as well as disposal of waste water which helps in protecting the health of
human beings. It also helps in mitigating risks of flooding in urban areas. The systems of current
urban water sustainability are facing a lot of pressure due to various challenges. These challenges
include the impact of climate change; very rapid growth of population which leads to
urbanization, as well as ageing infrastructure and that has reached capacity constraints. So as to
address all these issues, there is implementation of services of urban water with IUWM
(Integrated Urban Water Management) as well as WSUD (Water Sensitive Urban Designing)
methods. The systems of WSUD have a role of delivering multiple benefits which include
conservation of water, improving the quality of storm water, controlling flooding, landscape
amenities as well as living environments that are healthy. The systems can either be provided as
a combination in systems that are centralized or as systems that are standing alone. These
systems are facing a lot of knowledge gaps that impede the mainstream uptake. These knowledge
gaps are covering various aspects in implementing them. The gaps include economic, technical,
and social as well as aspects of institution.
Keywords: Water Sensitive Urban Design, storm water, waterways, pavements, bio-retention,
run off, and quality.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 3
Content
s
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................4
Background information..........................................................................................................................6
Policy, Planning and Legislation.............................................................................................................8
Principles.................................................................................................................................................9
Objectives for WSUD............................................................................................................................10
Techniques under WSUD......................................................................................................................10
Elements of WSUD...............................................................................................................................11
Bio-retention systems........................................................................................................................12
Bio-retention basins...........................................................................................................................13
Infiltration systems and trenches.......................................................................................................14
Sand filters.........................................................................................................................................14
Rainwater tanks.................................................................................................................................15
Porous paving....................................................................................................................................16
Effectiveness of WSUD elements..........................................................................................................17
Benefits of WSUD.................................................................................................................................18
WSUD benefits to environment.........................................................................................................18
WSUD benefits to the urban areas.....................................................................................................18
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................19
References.................................................................................................................................................20
Appendices................................................................................................................................................26

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 4
Introduction
The WSUD (water sensitive urban design) involves a method of planning cities in ways
that help in minimizing water runoff to ensure that the storm water causes the minimum amount
of damage. It also involves application of best strategies to utilize the water leading to an
improved urban environment (1). The urban areas have been known to alter the manner in which
water flows through natural environments. Roads, buildings and all the impervious surfaces
within urban areas prevent the soaking into the soil of rainwater, and force it into watercourses
such as storm water drains. In Australia storm water is channeled into storm water drains made
of concrete and other channels that feed into the waterways of urban cities. The result is
increased flash flooding that sometimes leads to erosion of water courses and damages
vegetation that is along waterways (2). This storm water passes into rivers and lakes taking in
sediments, nutrients, hydrocarbons and other gross pollutants that include litter. WSUD is the
methodology for having the urban water cycle integrated in city areas into the urban design and
planning towards mitigating the negative impact of storm water in waterways and making the
best use of this water by mimicking the cycle processes of natural water.
Storm or runoff water contains various types of pollutants including heavy metal such as
copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) (3, 6,7). Heavy
metal in storm water comes from tires, road asphalt, parking dust, automobile exhausts, and fuel
combustion. It gets washed by water runoff and their discharge into streams create environmental
and health hazards. Other pollutants include total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) that
gets washed from farms due to continued use of fertilizers (3). Water runoff also carries with it

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 5
organic compounds that include insecticides, pharmaceuticals, synthetic fibers, plastics, synthetic
detergents, food additives, synthetic pesticides and VOCs (volatile organic compounds) that
come from man-made activities such as spillage. WSUD helps remove these substances before
their discharge into water bodies.
WSUD has the support of the value of water in urban areas and water provision services
in ways that factor in specific opportunities as well as limitations evident in site developments
towards the provision of water services to protect as well as enhancing the ecological and
hydrological integrity of the local areas. WSUD takes into account all the aspects related to
water cycle in urban areas as resources of high value. Thus the implementation of WSUD in the
city development improves the challenge of low yields from the conventional catchments of
supply of water caused by potential impact of changes in climate. This is a critical element of the
IUWM (integrated urban-water management) (3) which promotes the planning methods that are
coordinated concerning drinking water, storm water and waste water services, taking into
account the wider implications of sustained development that includes greenhouse gas emissions,
energy demand, nutrient losses, solid waste generation, community acceptability and life cycle
costs. In the United Kingdom WSUD is known simply as SUDS or sustainable urban drainage
systems (4). In America, it is known as low impact development or the LID and storm water
BMPs or best management practices. It is broadly structured within the green infrastructure term.
The history and description of these terms have been well presented including the
definition of systems that are decentralized and developed concerning the current recognition of
the need for decentralized water, storm water and waste water systems towards the mitigation of
the urban development environmental impact. These definitions also highlights the drivers for
decentralized system implementation including; to overcome the limits in the capacity of waste

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 6
water and local water management service, protection of the environment that is sensitive,
showcase the examples involving sustainable development landscape amenity, water
conservation and innovation and technology promotion (5). These definitions are in line with the
WSUD philosophy. The various impediments that affect a greater uptake of WSUD include the
fragmentation and inadequacy of current governance, lack of knowledge and skills, guidelines
and regulations for WSUD, public health risk potential increase, and poor incentives of finance.
There is also a gap in the knowledge for centralized alternative and conventional systems
interactions. Studies indicate that institutional and socio-technical factors need to be considered
on the development of enabling environments in the case of systems applied alternatively. The
systems involve the potential of reducing the workload on the environment as well as resources.
Background information
Traditional industrial and urban development changes the landscapes that have penetrable
vegetated sides to impermeable interconnected sides that result in large quantities of runoff or
storm water which needs to be managed. In the past Australia, similar to other many
industrialized nations like United Kingdom and United States has managed storm water runoff as
a nuisance and hindrance which endangers property and human health (6). This emanated in a
well-built focus on the outline of the storm water administration systems that swiftly carry storm
water runoff straight to streams that have small or insignificant focus on conserving the
ecosystem. This strategy of management leads to the aspect of urban stream syndrome. Increased
amounts of flows from rainfall, rush quickly into the water ways conveying sediments and
pollutants carried off from impermeable areas. This process leads to waterways to convey aerial
concentrated nutrients, suspended solids and other pollutants. Enlarged peak flows, additionally

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 7
change the waterways stability as well as the morphology, multiplying sedimentation further
while extremely decreasing biotic growth.
Expanded consideration of the USS or the urban stream syndrome by 1960s led to the
motion towards effective storm water administration in Australian borders (7). There was great
increase in awareness in the 19th century, as scientists, territory; federal and local governments
collaborated under the CRC or the cooperative research center initiative (8). Progressively city
designers have acknowledged a demand for storm water management to be incorporated as a
strategy towards waste, potable as well as storm water administration to authorize the urban
areas to adjust and be adaptable to the increased pressure from the urban densification, growth on
city population and changes in area climate sets on the aged and progressively exorbitant
infrastructure for water. Moreover, the arid areas of Australia indicate that the country is
extremely vulnerable to the patterns of climate changes. Together with the dependence on origins
or evident surface water, merged with greatest acute droughts from 2000 to 2010 after the
European encampment, focus on the aspect that most city areas are facing growing scarcity for
water. This has started adjusting the perception of storm water from being nuisance as well as a
liability to the possessing of significance in supply of water that leads to the altering of storm
water administration practices.
Australian states, establishing the federal authority’s research in 19th century, started
liberating WSUD recommendations (9). The West of Australia was among the first to release
recommendations in the year 1994. Victoria delivered recommendations on the leading
application environmental administration of urban storm water in the year 1999 which originated
from consultations with the New Southern Wales where related documents got freed by
Queensland across the Brisbane City Council in the year 1999 (10). Collaboration between the

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 8
governments of Federal, Territory and State jurisdictions to expand the efficiency and
effectiveness of water use in Australian areas led to the NWI or the national water initiative,
which got signed in 2004, June (11). The National Water Initiative is a state plan, comprehensive
for upgrade of water organization in the nation. It incorporates an extensive area of water
administration issues and promotes the adoption of the top application strategies to water
management in the Australian states which also includes the WSUD integration.
Policy, Planning and Legislation
In Australia, there is division of power due to constitution between the Australian
Commonwealth and the States. This leads to rational judicial requisite for water cycle
administration in urban areas. The NWI, admitted by the State, Territory and Federal regimes in
the year 2004 and 2006, delivers a public plan to enhance water organization across the nation
(12). It assigns clear objective of creating water responsive urban areas in Australia and
promotes the adopting of WSUD strategies. Public requirements are issued according to National
Water Initiative clause 92 (ii) in allocating instruction about the assessment initiatives related to
WSUD (13). From the national level, environmental legislation and planning widely encourages
ecologically sustainable development, although in different degrees have only restricted
essentials for WSUD. National panning strategies allocate more particular standards used to
assume the practices related to WSUD in specific scenarios. From the local administrative stage,
local organizations for water resource approaches with support from the local or regional scale of
catchment joined by administrative strategies for water cycle and storm water may set regulatory
essentials on the developments of executing WSUD integration.
As the administration to regulate over storm water and runoff gets portioned between
regional government regions and Australian states, concerns of numerous ruling jurisdictions

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 9
have led to incompatible WSUD strategy application, practices as well as disintegrated
administration of bigger watershed areas. For instance, in Melbourne, jurisdictional dominion of
watersheds of bigger than sixty ha lies in the national-level rule, (the Melbourne water control)
while regional governments control watersheds of smaller sizes (14). Therefore, national
Melbourne Water has been prevented from financing remarkably in works of WSUD that
revamp watersheds of small small-scale.
Principles
 Safeguarding as well as increasing creeks, wetlands and rivers inside the environments in
the cities.
 Safeguarding as well as promoting standards related to water channelling from the city
surroundings to the rivers, wetlands as well as creeks.
 Reinstating the water balance in urban areas by reusing recycled water, storm water and
brown water.
 Preserving water reservoirs through the improvement of systems effectiveness.
 Incorporating storm water treatment into the terrain so that it provides numerous
beneficial usages such as wildlife habitation, water standard treatment, open public space
and recreation (15).
 Decreasing the run-off and the peak flows from the urban surrounding concurrently
creating groundwater recharge and infiltration.
 Incorporating water to the natural landscape that increases urban designation in addition
to visual, social, ecological and cultural values; and
 Carrying out WSUD in the most cost effective and simple manner that authorizes for
extensive applications.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 10
Objectives for WSUD
 Decreasing drinkable water requests by the supply and demand administration for side
water.
 Integrating fittings and instruments that allow effective use of water.
 Embracing the strategy of fit-for-purpose, towards the usage of possible alternative water
origins that include rainwater.
 Reducing waste water production and treating the waste water to the quality that is
acceptable for reusing, discharging and free to receive water sources.
 Processing storm water to satisfy water targets for reuse as well as discharge by capturing
and filtering pollutants, nutrients and sediments through retaining and moderate release of
storm water (16).
 Promoting waterway health via reinstating or conserving the chemical-free hydrological
system of catchments using reuse and treatment technology systems.
 Upgrading the aesthetics as well as the relationship with water to be used in urban areas.
 Encouraging an outstanding level of water-related self-reliance inside urban settings by
making good use of water origins to reduce storm, potable as well as waste water
outflows and inflows through the integration into urban design of restricted water storage
(17).
 Preventing the effect of ‘urban heat island’ by way of using vegetation together with
water, thus helping in refilling groundwater sources.
Techniques under WSUD
 Effective water use devices to decrease the application of potable water.
 Grey water should be reused as a possible source of water to preserve potable providers.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 11
 Storage, reuse and infiltration of storm water rather than drainage structure augmentation.
 Usage of vegetation for storm water refining processes
 Effective landscaping of water to minimize the application of potable water.
 Preservation of recreational, cultural and environmental value aspects related to water, by
reducing the ecological effect of an outline connected to distribution and supplying,
storm water and services related to wastewater (18).
 Restrained treatment for wastewater as well as reusing techniques to minimise potable
water utilization and reduce environmentally unfriendly wastewater emissions.
 Distribution of storm water or recycled city waters which should be subjected to suitable
control measures for allocating environmental essentials of water for watercourses that
have been reformed.
 Flexible organizational categorizations that can cope with expanded variability and
uncertainties in climate.
 A clear focus on future planning
 Divergent source portfolio of water, assisted by decentralized as well as centralized water
devices in the region.
Elements of WSUD
Table 1: Examples of common WSUD elements above (19)

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 12
There are different elements that can be included into the WSUD development planning.
However, the best option is depended on the proposed characteristics as well as the development
of the site. Some of the proposed elements may not be suitable for a single dwelling. However,
they can be adopted towards the achievement of the specified needs of the development. Some of
these elements and techniques include the following;
Bio-retention systems
Bio-retention systems usually involve treating water through use of vegetation before
filtering sediments and other various solids through media that is prescribed (20). Vegetation
usually makes a provision of biological uptake of phosphorus, nitrogen as well as other various
fine and soluble particulate contaminants. Bio-retention systems usually make an offer of
footprint that is smaller than other measures that are similar such as wetlands that are
constructed. These are commonly useful in filtering and treating runoff before it reaches street
drains. Large scale use may be very much challenging and therefore alternative devices can be
much suitable. A bio-retention system usually includes bio-retention swales as well as bio
retention basins (21). A bio-retention swale is also known as a drainage channel or a grassed
swale. Buffer strips and swales are usually the same as the bio-retention swales. Bio-retention
swales get fixed at the swale base that is found in the middle of road strips that are divided.
These swales provide both are and treatment of storm water. Depending on requirements of the
treatment, a system of bio-retention may be installed along full length of swale or in part of
swale. Water from runoff normally goes through a media filter that is fine as it proceeds
downwards. Here, it is collected through a pipe that is perforated and leading to waterways and
storages that are found downstream (22). Vegetation that grows inside the media of filtering is

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 13
useful in preventing soil erosion. Bio-retention swales are very different from infiltration systems
because they are suited to work in soil conditions of wide range.
Bio-retention basins
Bio-retention basins usually provide a flow control as well as treatments of water quality
in bio retention swales that is similar. However, they do not have conveyance function. Apart
from filtration as well as functions of biological uptake in bio-retention systems, basins also give
an extended storm water detention so as to help in maximizing treatment of runoff during flow
events that are small to medium. Such systems are also described by the term rain-garden.
However, rain-garden refers to a smaller lot-scale bio-retention basin of an individual (23). A
bio-retention basin has the benefit of being applied in different shapes and scales. Thus, it is
flexible in locating them within developments. Just like other bio-retention systems, bio-
retention basins mostly have their locations alongside streets and at regular intervals. This helps
them to treat surface runoff before entering into the drainage system. Large scale basins have an
alternative of providing treatment for areas that are large. A good example of such areas is in
outfalls of drainage systems. There are different types of vegetation that is applied in the bio-
retention basins (24). This is important because it allows them to become very well integrated
into the landscape design that is in the surrounding. It is important to select those species of
vegetation that can tolerate periodic inundations. However, a bio-retention basin has a very high
sensitivity to such materials that can cause clogging the medium of filtering. Basins are
commonly used together with GPTs (gross pollutant traps) or even litter traps. These traps
include trash racks that are widely used as well as sediment basins that are coarser and which
help in capturing litter and other solids. This reduces damage potential of the vegetation as well
as the surface of filter media (25).

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 14
Infiltration systems and trenches
These refer to the structures that are excavated and that are shallow and are filled with
materials that are permeable so as to make underground reservoirs. Permeable materials used
include gravel and rock. Hey are made to hold runoff of storm water in a subsurface trench and
the release the water gradually to the soil as well as ground water systems that are in the
surrounding (26). Although infiltration trenches are not designed to be a treatment measure, it is
capable of providing some treatment levels through retention of pollutants as well as sediments.
Peak discharges as well as runoff volumes coming from impervious rocks are usually reduced
through capturing as well as infiltrating the flows. In WSUD systems, infiltration systems are
placed as final elements (27). This is because of their main function of becoming discharged
storm water that is treated. It is wrong to locate infiltration trenches in areas that are steep as well
as unstable areas. So as to hold soil firm to avoid its coming towards the rocky areas or the
gravel filling, the trench is usually lined with a layer of fabric that is geotextile. Infiltration
systems depend on characteristics of local soils. They are used best in soils with good capacity of
infiltration. These include sandy to loam soils which have deep ground water (28). In areas
where soil is of low permeability like clay, a pipe that is perforated may be put in the gravel. It is
very important to make regular maintenance so as to make sure that there is no clogging of
sediments in the system and also ensure that desired rate of infiltration is maintained. This
involves checking as well as maintaining pre-treatment through periodic regular inspections as
well as cleaning the material which is clogged.
Sand filters
These refer to the varied principles of infiltration trenches. It operates in a method that is
similar to systems of bio-retention. Storm water is usually passed in these filters before

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 15
discharging to storm water system that is in the downstream. Sand filters help in treating surface
runoff from hard surfaces that are confined (29). A good example of such surfaces includes car
parks as well as places that are heavily urbanized as well as built-up places. Vegetation is not
supported in such areas. Sand which is the media of filtration does not retain moisture that is
sufficient. Sand filters have their installation underground. The filters consist of sedimentation
chambers which are used as pre-treatment devices to help in removing debris, litter, gross
pollutants as well as sediments of medium size. This is followed by a layer of sand that is used in
filtering sediments, fine particles as well as dissolved pollutants (30). Water that is filtered is
collected by underlain pipes that are perforated in a way that is similar as in systems of bio-
retention. An overflow chamber may also be found in the systems. The chamber of
sedimentation can contain water that is permanent or it can have a design which allows water to
drain with weep holes which are found between storm events. However, water shortages that are
permanent may risk conditions that are anaerobic which may cause releasing of pollutants such
as phosphoric substances (31). This design process must put in consideration provision of
detention storage. This will help realize high hydrologic effectiveness as well as control of
discharge through proper size of perforated overflow and under-drain path. Regular maintenance
will also be required in preventing crust forming.
Rainwater tanks
This technique helps collect water directly from the roofs of houses and can be a good
way of providing a supplementary non-portable water source in cities. These tanks offer
temporary storage to water flows that help reduce the rates of peak flow while retaining the
rainfall onsite. They also offer treatment strategies that settle suspended soils (32). They can
serve as a water source for sensitive uses that are non-water quality that include flushing of

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 16
toilets, watering small gardens. Small sized tanks can serve this purpose especially in a domestic
setting. Thus, a water storage tank is among the WSUD suitable elements in developing
residential areas by meeting the requirements of storm water management.
Porous paving
In cities the environments around them have surfaces that have pavements including the
roads, courtyards and drive ways that cover a large area. These serve as impervious surfaces that
do not allow the soaking of rainfall into the soil that is underlay (33). Thus, the outcome
contributes to increased amounts of storm water flows that enter into streams and rivers than it is
naturally expected to happen. The flows of storm water carry with them a lot of pollution
collected from the roads, roofs and pavements as well as the high pace the storm water gets
delivered, which contributes to erosion of the stream banks and scouring of habitat. In the
protection of these outcomes, the amount of impervious surfaces needs to be reduced in the
urban cities so as to reduce the rate the pollutants and storm water get washed off and taken to
the streams (34). This is done through installation of pavements that are porous to replace the
traditional ones made of concrete. These allow quick soaking of runoff water into the soil.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 17
Fig.1 Porous pavement and water tank above southwest urban hydrology online website
Effectiveness of WSUD elements
The witnessed WSUD element effectiveness for delivering high quality treatment of
storm water depends on primarily, the attention that is given on the design and element
construction from the start. Thus, it is vital to ensure that the element chosen is best suited based
on scale and development method (35). Pond or wetland systems are not appropriate elements
for single dwelling places while a water tank is not appropriate for treating and solve the
industrial development requirements (36). Additionally, it may appear that no one single element
of WSUD may be sufficient in addressing all the storm water issues on the site and thus may be
necessary to have several elements accommodated in one site. This move allows for size
optimization especially in areas where there are constraints of space existing. The choice for
these elements will affect significantly, their effectiveness (37). For instance a rain garden that is
located in private residential area may be removed by the owner who does not know its role in
the treatment of discharge for storm water. Thus to ensure that there is continued maintenance

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 18
and functioning of the elements, the WSUD design council needs to come up with a maintenance
program that sets out the arrangements for future operational and maintenance as a key condition
before they are awarded with a construction permit of a given element (38).
Benefits of WSUD
The WSUD strategy puts emphasis on the benefits of waterways and storm water as
assets and resources instead of the conventional perception of the water as a source of nuisance.
WSUD benefits to environment
 The benefits of WSUD to the environment include the following number of ways;
 Increased conservation of water
 Improvement of storm water quality that improves the quality of water in bays,
waterways and catchment areas
 Improvement of the biodiversity and habitat through established wetlands and other
alternatives of natural treatment
 The provision of measures to be adopted in addressing the impact of change in climate
that includes the effect of heat island and flooding (39)
WSUD benefits to the urban areas
 The urban cities benefits from the implementation of WSUD in the following manner
 Replacement of artificial pipes with other natural elements for water drainage such as the
wetlands
 Enhancement of aesthetics through the increase of vegetation landscaping and aquatic
elements
 Creation of a visible infrastructure that combines the natural elements with functionality

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 19
 Linked natural and urban environments
 Mitigation of flooding through the city areas by slowing down of storm water movement
to the streams (40)
 There is improved value of the market through the incorporation of water features,
opportunities of water re-use, preservation and enhancement of ecological systems, thus
making development more marketable and desirable
 There is also improved utilization of resources through benefits from cost offers in areas
that are not suitable for residential developments (41)
 Creation of passive recreation that contributes to requirement of allocation for public
open space
Conclusion
The systems of current urban water sustainability are facing a lot of pressure due to
various challenges. These challenges include the impact of climate change; very rapid growth of
population which leads to urbanization, as well as ageing infrastructure and that has reached
capacity constraints. So as to address all these issues, there is implementation of services of
urban water with IUWM (Integrated Urban Water Management) as well as WSUD approaches.
The systems of WSUD have a role of delivering multiple benefits which include conservation of
water, improving the quality of storm water, controlling flooding, landscape amenities as well as
living environments that are healthy. In the traditional approach of conveyance of storm water
management, the water gets transferred in a direct manner using waterways and pipes ultimately
to the bays. The strategy causes significance degradation to the bays and the waterways that
receive the storm water. The water also wastes the valuable alternative to non-portable water
sources. Thus WSUD provides an alternative methodology as well as puts an emphasis on the

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 20
benefits of water ways as environmental assets and storm water as a useful resource. The WSUD
offers strategies meant to create natural water balance by re-using storm water on-site, temporary
treatment and storage. The management of the urban run-off through water sensitive ways
addresses the issues related to storm water while improving the environmental and social
amenity of the urban landscape while keeping the cities greener healthier, cooler happier and
enjoyable places of living.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 21
References
1. Leonard R, Walton A, Koth B, Green M, Spinks A, Myers B, Malkin S, Mankad A,
Chacko P, Sharma A, Pezzaniti D. Community acceptance of water sensitive urban
design: six case studies. Goyder Institute for Water Research, Adelaide, Australia. 2014.
2. Maheepala S, Hewa GA, Myers B, Pezzaniti D, Sharma AK. Towards the development of
stormwater flow management targets in the greater Adelaide region (2013) (Doctoral
dissertation, International Water Association).
3. Burns MJ, Fletcher TD, Walsh CJ, Ladson AR, Hatt BE. Hydrologic shortcomings of
conventional urban stormwater management and opportunities for reform. Landscape and
urban planning. 2012 Apr 15;105(3):230-40.
4. Burns MJ, Fletcher TD, Duncan HP, Hatt BE, Ladson AR, Walsh CJ. The performance
of rainwater tanks for stormwater retention and water supply at the household scale: an
empirical study. Hydrological Processes. 2015 Jan 1;29(1):152-60.
5. Feng W, Hatt BE, McCarthy DT, Fletcher TD, Deletic A. Biofilters for stormwater
harvesting: understanding the treatment performance of key metals that pose a risk for
water use. Environmental science & technology. 2012 Apr 12;46(9):5100-8.
6. Fletcher TD, Walsh CJ, Bos D, Nemes V, RossRakesh S, Prosser T, Hatt B, Birch R.
Restoration of stormwater retention capacity at the allotment-scale through a novel
economic instrument. Water Science and Technology. 2011 Jul 1;64(2):494-502.
7. Simon Beecham PhD C. Effects of changing rainfall patterns on WSUD in Australia.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 2012 May 1;165(5):285.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 22
8. Sharma AK, Cook S, Tjandraatmadja G, Gregory A. Impediments and constraints in the
uptake of water sensitive urban design measures in greenfield and infill developments.
Water Science and Technology. 2012 Jan 1;65(2):340-52.
9. Rossman LA. Storm water management model user's manual, version 5.0. Cincinnati:
National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,
US Environmental Protection Agency; 2010.
10. Hoyer J, Dickhaut W, Kronawitter L, Weber B. Water sensitive urban design: principles
and inspiration for sustainable stormwater management in the city of the future.
Hamburg, Germany: Jovis; 2011.
11. Losco S. Water Sensitive Urban Design-WSUD-Principles and Inspiration for
Sustainable Stormwater Management in the City of the Future-AA. VV. CSE-City Safety
Energy. 2014 Mar 10(1):102-3.
12. Gironás J, Roesner LA, Rossman LA, Davis J. A new applications manual for the Storm
Water Management Model (SWMM). Environmental Modelling & Software. 2010 Jun
1;25(6):813-4.
13. Donofrio J, Kuhn Y, McWalter K, Winsor M. Water-sensitive urban design: An
emerging model in sustainable design and comprehensive water-cycle management.
Environmental Practice. 2009 Sep 1;11(3):179-89.
14. Coutts AM, Tapper NJ, Beringer J, Loughnan M, Demuzere M. Watering our cities: The
capacity for Water Sensitive Urban Design to support urban cooling and improve human
thermal comfort in the Australian context. Progress in Physical Geography. 2013
Feb;37(1):2-8.
15. Council TC. Water sensitive urban design 2017.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 23
16. Bowen M. Storm Water Management 2016.
17. Ashley R, Lundy L, Ward S, Shaffer P, Walker AL, Morgan C, Saul A, Wong T, Moore
S. Water-sensitive urban design: opportunities for the UK. In Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers: Municipal Engineer 2013 (Vol. 166, No. ME2, pp. 65-76).
ICE Publishing.
18. Lucke T, Beecham S, Boogaard FC, Myers B. Are infiltration capacities of clogged
permeable pavements still acceptable?. NOVATECH 2013. 2013.
19. Wella-Hewage CS, Hewa GA, Pezzaniti D. Can water sensitive urban design systems
help to preserve natural channel-forming flow regimes in an urbanised catchment?. Water
Science and Technology. 2016 Jan 8;73(1):78-87.
20. Lucke T. Using drainage slots in permeable paving blocks to delay the effects of
clogging: Proof of concept study. Water. 2014 Sep 3;6(9):2660-70.
21. Page D, Gonzalez D, Sidhu J, Toze S, Torkzaban S, Dillon P. Assessment of treatment
options of recycling urban stormwater recycling via aquifers to produce drinking water
quality. Urban Water Journal. 2016 Aug 17;13(6):657-62.
22. Maheepala S, Hewa GA, Myers B, Pezzaniti D, Sharma AK. Towards the development of
stormwater flow management targets in the greater Adelaide region (Doctoral
dissertation, International Water Association) 2012.
23. Inamdar PM, Sharma AK, Cook S, Perera BJ. Evaluation of stormwater harvesting sites
using multi criteria decision methodology. Journal of Hydrology. 2018 Jul 1;562:181-92.
24. List D, Treenet J, Honour AO. Harsha Sapdhare, PhD Student, University of South
Australia Tim Johnson, City of Mitcham David Lawry OAM, Space Down Under 2009

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 24
25. Mohamed MA, Lucke T, Boogaard F. Using swales to pre-treat stormwater runoff and
prolong the effective life of permeable pavement systems. InProceedings of the 8th
International Conference NOVATECH 2013 (pp. 1-10). Novatech Graie.
26. Lucke T, Boogaard FC. Using swales to pre-treat stormwater runoff and prolong the
effective life of permeable pavement systems. NOVATECH 2013. 2013.
27. Zhang K, Yong F, McCarthy DT, Deletic A. Predicting long term removal of heavy
metals from porous pavements for stormwater treatment. Water research. 2018 Oct
1;142:236-45.
28. Ahammed F. A review of water-sensitive urban design technologies and practices for
sustainable stormwater management. Sustainable Water Resources Management. 2017
Sep 1;3(3):269-82.
29. AL-RUBAEI AM. 8. Long-Term performance of stormwater infiltration facilities. Urban
waters: Resource or Risk?.:81.
30. Hellmers S, Fröhle P. Integrating local scale drainage measures in meso scale catchment
modelling. Water. 2017 Jan 25;9(2):71.
31. West C, Kenway S, Yuan Z. Risks to the long-term viability of residential non-potable
water schemes: a review. 2015.
32. Tadiar KD. An Examination into the Mechanisms and Behaviours Associated with
Sediment Accumulation in Permeable Pavements (Doctoral dissertation, University of
South Australia Australia 2016).
33. Sounthararajah DP. Mitigation of pollutants for beneficial use of stormwater (Doctoral
dissertation).

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 25
34. Ahammed F. An Investigation Into the Feasibility of Stormwater Management Using
WSUD Principles in Dhaka, Bangladesh (Doctoral dissertation, University of South
Australia). 2014.
35. Taylor WJ. Low Impact Development Techniques. Association of Washington Cities,
Olympic. 2013 Apr.
36. Rauch W, Bach PM, Brown R, Deletic A, Ferguson B, De Haan J, McCarthy DT,
Kleidorfer M, Tapper N, Sitzenfrei R, Urich C. Modelling transitions in urban drainage
management. InProceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Urban Drainage
Modelling 2012.
37. Chowdhury RK. Assessment of observed rainfall variability and its implications for
WSUD in Australia (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Australia) 2011.
38. Lundy L, Wade R. Integrating sciences to sustain urban ecosystem services. Progress in
Physical Geography. 2011 Oct;35(5):653-69.
39. Urich C, Bach PM, Hellbach C, Sitzenfrei R, Kleidorfer M, McCarthy DT, Deletic A,
Rauch W. Dynamics of cities and water infrastructure in the DAnCE4Water model.
InProceedings of the 12th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto
Alegre/Brazil 2011 Sep (Vol. 10, p. 15).
40. Ashley R, Lundy L, Ward S, Shaffer P, Walker AL, Morgan C, Saul A, Wong T, Moore
S. Water-sensitive urban design: opportunities for the UK. InProceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers: Municipal Engineer 2013 (Vol. 166, No. ME2, pp. 65-76).
ICE Publishing.
41. Fletcher TD, Shuster W, Hunt WF, Ashley R, Butler D, Arthur S, Trowsdale S, Barraud
S, Semadeni-Davies A, Bertrand-Krajewski JL, Mikkelsen PS. SUDS, LID, BMPs,

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 26
WSUD and more–The evolution and application of terminology surrounding urban
drainage. Urban Water Journal. 2015 Oct 3;12(7):525-42.

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 27
Appendices
Appendix 1: Disclosure
‘Human and Animal Rights’
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the
authors.
Appendix 2: flow chart for urban storm water management
Flow chart courtesy of southwest urban hydrology online website

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN 28
Appendix 3: photo for bio-retention basin
Photo courtesy of southwest urban hydrology online website