PUBH6002 Report: Air Quality and Environmental Health in WA

This report examines air quality as a significant environmental health issue in Western Australia, focusing on the impacts of air pollution on public health. It utilizes the DPSEEA framework to analyze the driving forces, pressures, state, exposure, health effects, and actions related to air quality. The report discusses social and political limitations of the framework, along with existing regulations and policies implemented by the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation (DWER) and the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). It also covers national and local government roles and identifies gaps in current regulations, particularly concerning inequity in protecting vulnerable communities. The report concludes by highlighting the importance of addressing air pollution through alternative transport, low-sulfur fuels, and particulate filters to improve air quality and safeguard public health. This report is a valuable resource for students studying environmental health and public health issues.

Running head: AIR QUALITY
Air quality: An environmental health issue in Western Australia
Name of the Student:
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Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................2
Part 1..........................................................................................................................................2
The DPSEEA framework in air quality.................................................................................2
Social and political limitation of the DPSEEA framework...................................................4
Part 2..........................................................................................................................................5
Regulations and policies to regulate air quality.....................................................................5
Gaps in current regulations....................................................................................................7
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................................9

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Introduction
The decreasing quality of air is increasing each day irrespective of the economic and social
strata of the geographical area. The particulate air pollutants can overcome the defense
system of the body and penetrate deep into the respiratory system and subsequently into the
human circulatory system, affecting the lungs, brain and the heart (Patel et al., 2019).
Contaminants of air released by industries, housing, motor vehicles and commercial sources
influence human health adversely and evidence suggests that in many cities, air pollution is a
considerable burden of diseases and mortalities (Kelly & Fussell, 2015). Epidemiological
evidence of Western Australia depicts that numerous health effects are directly associated
with air quality and pollution. This paper discusses the environmental health issue of air
quality in the geographical region of Western Australia, describes the DPSEEA framework to
outline the causes and impacts of air quality in Western Australia, some social and political
factors influencing it, existing federal and state policies regulating air quality and future
directions that can overcome the present barriers.
Part 1
The DPSEEA framework in air quality
The DPSEEA framework provides an interconnection between the issues of environment,
health and development. It is primarily useful to describe the impacts of pollution, which
include air pollution as well as others. The framework outlines indicators at several levels to
be used at the local, national and global levels for specific plans and policies by various
nations. The driving forces-pressures-state-exposures-health effects-actions (DPSEEA)
framework describes how the diverse driving forces create pressures affecting the

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environmental state and finally, the health of humans via different pathways of exposure so
that the individuals can come touch with the environment (Who.int, 2020).
The DPSEEA framework
The fundamental driving forces that influence the air quality both indoor and outdoor in
Western Australia include home heating, fuel consumption, and distance traveled by vehicles.
The quality of air is influenced by a variety of driving forces. The demand for the annual
consumption of energy is increasing as is regarded as a significant driving force resulting in
pressures on the environment. With a higher consumption of energy, the production of energy
is also increasing, increasing the content of air pollutants in the atmosphere. Some of the
other significant driving forces in most of the regions of Western Australia are the
combustion of coal and wood in burners and open fires and other contributors to air pollution
such as the distance (in kilometers) traveled by automobiles (Tsou et al., 2018).
The significant potential health risk is by the emissions and exhausts of pollutants such as
SO2 automobiles, agriculture and construction sites. Another significant form of pressure on

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the air quality in Western Australia is by precursors of air contaminants, which after chemical
reactions, form pollutants. This includes secondary particulate matter and O3 resulting from
the combustion of fuels at power plants, motor vehicles, industrial processes and household
chores such as cooking. Meteorological conditions also cause changes in the concentrations
of air pollution in some parts of Western Australia. The state of adequate or ambient air
quality includes measuring the amounts of particulate matter in the air which provide an
outline of the quality of air and associated health risks. Some of the significant air pollutants
in the region of Western Australia include O3, SO2, particulate matter (PM), CO, and NOx.
One of the significant exposures to indoor air quality includes the burning of gas, oil,
kerosene, wood, coal and second-hand smoke from tobacco. In Western Australia, it is
observed that these factors, in combination with improper ventilation, resulting in poor air
quality indoors. Gas heating appliances release CO and NO2, both of which are associated
with long-term health effects. CO exposure results in ill-effects on health such as symptoms
of flu, fatigue, the lowered function of brain, angina and impaired vision. Exposure to NO2
leads to impaired function of the lungs, irritability in the throat, eyes and nose, and elevated
respiratory infections, particularly in infants and children. NO2 exposure also causes life-long
impacts on health such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases (Smit, Cope & Knibbs,
2019). This is also supported by a study reporting a high prevalence of childhood deaths due
to pneumonia caused by increased air pollution and respiratory pathogens in the region of
Western Australia (Bhuiyan, 2019).
The evidence supporting the ill-effects of low air quality, both indoor and outdoor, is growing
and has reported a considerable decrease in life expectancy. High amounts of PM10 have
reported increased mortality rates in regions in and around Perth. The range of health effects
caused by sub-standard air quality varies from transient respiratory effects to increased
hospitalization to mortality due to circulatory and respiratory diseases (Hannelly, 2017).

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Social and political limitation of the DPSEEA framework
Though the DPSEEA framework is useful to evaluate complicated environmental health
issues addressing the potential impacts of climatic changes on health, many researchers have
proved that it does not represent complex interconnections such as social, economic and some
political implications between exposures and health outcomes. Social and economic factors
also are essential elements that influence the exposure and outcomes of reduced air quality.
This framework does not include critical social factors such as land usage and population
density (Hajat, Hsia & O’Neill, 2015). Due to limited fertile lands, agricultural practices in
Western Australia are intensive and utilize modern machinery and technology to make the
optimum use of the available land. Thus, the air pollution in this region is comparatively
higher than their eastern counterparts. Moreover, as different governments have established
their own set of regulations for measuring acceptable standards of air, the quality of air in
each region varies according to the political regulations of the region. Thus, the DPSEEA
framework is acceptable and flexible but fails to elaborate on some political, social and
economic issues related to air quality.
Part 2
Regulations and policies to regulate air quality
In Western Australia, the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation (DWER) is
responsible for protecting and maintaining the quality of air. The DWER outlines the
strategies, policies and technical advice on matters related to air quality including industrial
emissions, ambient air quality, meteorology, air toxins and health standards. It is also
responsible for providing advice to other concerned departments and agencies such as the
Minister for Environment, the Environmental Protection Authority, agencies of the State and
government and the community (Der.wa.gov.au, 2020). The Environment Protection

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Authority was set up under the second part of the Environmental Protection Act 1986, which
aims at protecting, preserving, controlling and abetting pollution and environmental damage
(Healthywa.wa.gov.au, 2020). The Department of Environmental Regulation controls the
pollution as per the Act and its enforcement under the sixth part of the Act. Besides, the
Office of the Appeals Convenor is responsible for managing and reporting the appeals related
to the assessment, proposals and implementation conditions (Epa.wa.gov.au, 2020). The key
stakeholders concerned with the issue of air quality have established a Stakeholder Reference
Group (SRG) for effective consultation. Some of the critical stakeholders and members of the
SRG include Environmental Institute of Australia & New Zealand, Environmental
Consultants Association Natural Resources Management WA, Chamber of Minerals and
Energy, WA Local Government Association and Environmental Defenders Office
(Epa.wa.gov.au, 2020).
The federal government of Australia along with the state governments, have established
national aims and policies concerned with emissions and maintaining air quality of the
country under the National Environment Protection Measures. The Measures are
implemented by the State and governments, which also have to be monitored and reporting
obligations. It is done under the National Clean Air Agreement, which was signed in 2015
and serves as the platform for a collaborative program regarding lowering air pollution and
enhancing the quality of air. This agreement led to the development of regulations concerned
with product emissions and address particulate pollution. The federal government also
establishes standards for national fuel quality as well as for emissions from vehicles for the
new and newly imported ones. Standards have also been set for emissions from in-service
automobiles and are the responsibilities of the territorial and state governments. The
government of Australia also has the policy to harmonize the standards of its vehicle
emissions as per international regulations. The Air Toxics National Environment Pollution

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Measures (NEPM) was responsible for some of the air pollutants and states benchmarks for
monitoring levels and control them from exceeding. Some of these pollutants are
formaldehyde, xylene, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Loc.gov, 2020).
The Ministerial Forum on Vehicle Emissions, set up in the year 2015, examines the
acceptance of Euro 6/VI noxious emissions standards, revising standards for fuel quality
depending on European standards and introduces fuel efficiency standards for the light-
weight vehicles. It has also delivered the statements on draft regulation impact for the public
consultation. The local government authorities have the responsibility to manage air pollution
and maintain the quality of air from domestic settings and small businesses.
Gaps in current regulations
It is observed that government laws often lead to inequity in protecting some communities
and geographical regions from air pollution and related health effects. This inequity is
frequently based on racial identity, ethnic minorities, isolated or indigenous communities and
lower socio-economic status of the people. Besides, no particular state-wide standards for air
quality are enforced in Western Australia. The regulations and policies listed in the previous
sections are valid only in the locations mentioned in the Environmental Protection Policy
2003, which includes Kurrawong Aboriginal Reserve, Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Coolgardie and
Kambalda (Dobbie & Green, 2015). Stricter regulations and more targeted policies taking
into account the local environmental agencies of the disadvantaged communities, can help to
reduce the impact. The government policies have established standards for regulating their
emissions. However, it is crucial to maintain air quality and reduce pollution by promoting
alternatives to private transport such as public transports and shifting to low-energy vehicles
such as cycles wherever possible. For instance, children must be made aware of using cycles
to travel to school rather than private cars that can save energy and prevent pollution. Another

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useful intervention includes promoting the use of low sulfur fuels, which facilitate nitrogen
oxide abetment and the use of particulate filters. This reduces the pollution of air from one of
the major contributors, vehicle emissions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, air quality is a significant environmental issue influencing public health and
responsible for several acute diseases and deaths. Some of the significant contributors to air
pollution include vehicle emissions and industrial exhausts, which have increased with
increasing globalization and urbanization. Western Australia reports air quality as a
significant environmental health issue and has developed various policies along with the
national government to regulate and maintain standard and safe air quality.

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References
Bhuiyan, M. U. (2019). Role of viral and bacterial pathogens in causing pneumonia among
Western Australian children.
Der.wa.gov.au. (2020). Air quality - Department of Water and Environmental Regulation.
Retrieved 5 April 2020, from https://www.der.wa.gov.au/your-environment/air
Dobbie, B., & Green, D. (2015). Australians are not equally protected from industrial air
pollution. Environmental Research Letters, 10(5), 055001.
Epa.wa.gov.au. (2020). Legislation | EPA Western Australia. Retrieved 5 April 2020, from
https://www.epa.wa.gov.au/legislation
Epa.wa.gov.au. (2020). Stakeholder engagement | EPA Western Australia. Retrieved 5 April
2020, from https://www.epa.wa.gov.au/stakeholder-engagement
Hajat, A., Hsia, C., & O’Neill, M. S. (2015). Socioeconomic disparities and air pollution
exposure: a global review. Current environmental health reports, 2(4), 440-450.
Hannelly, T. M. (2017). Air Pollution in Metropolitan Perth and Cardiovascular and
Respiratory Hospital Admissions (Doctoral dissertation, Curtin University).
Healthywa.wa.gov.au. (2020). Air pollution and health. Retrieved 5 April 2020, from
https://healthywa.wa.gov.au/Articles/A_E/Air-pollution-and-health
Kelly, F. J., & Fussell, J. C. (2015). Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and
improved understanding of risk. Environmental geochemistry and health, 37(4), 631-
649.

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Loc.gov. (2020). Regulation of Air Pollution. Retrieved 5 April 2020, from
https://www.loc.gov/law/help/air-pollution/australia.php
Patel, D., Jian, L., Xiao, J., Jansz, J., Yun, G., Lin, T., & Robertson, A. (2019). Joint effects
of heatwaves and air quality on ambulance services for vulnerable populations in
Perth, western Australia. Environmental pollution, 252, 532-542.
Smit, R., Cope, M., & Knibbs, L. (2019). Building an Australian national motor vehicle
inventory for air pollution population exposure assessment. Air Quality and Climate
Change, 53(2), 7.
Tsou, C., Green, C., Gray, G., & Thompson, S. C. (2018). Using the Healthy Community
Assessment Tool: Applicability and Adaptation in the Midwest of Western
Australia. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(6),
1159.
Who.int. (2020). How air pollution is destroying our health. Retrieved 5 April 2020, from
https://www.who.int/airpollution/news-and-events/how-air-pollution-is-destroying-
our-health