Biology 235: Anatomy and Physiology Assignment 2 - Chapters 11-18

This document presents a detailed solution to a Biology 235 assignment focusing on human anatomy and physiology, covering chapters 11-18 of the textbook. The assignment addresses key concepts such as excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs), the protective mechanisms of the central nervous system, and the components of a spinal reflex arc. It also outlines the differences between cranial nerves, explains the relationship between sensation and perception, and details the process of image formation on the retina, including potential abnormalities. Furthermore, the solution describes the hypothalamic hormones regulating pituitary hormone secretion, the causes and types of diabetes insipidus, blood circulation through the heart, and the roles of lymphocytes in the circulatory system. The assignment also explores the digestive processes of a meal, including the chemical components, digestive events in the mouth and stomach, and the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. Finally, the solution discusses the glomerular filtration rate and the factors that influence it, as well as the principles of acid-base imbalance and its regulation in the body.

2 – Chapter 11 – 18
REFERENCE BOOK: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 14e by Gerard J. Tortora /
Bryan Derrickson
Please be as specific and detailed as much as possible
1: It is defined as a excitatory presynaptic potential and inhibitory postsynaptic potential usually
they are produced from the various neurotransmitters which is chemically and bounded in the
phenomena of between to dendrites when the presynaptic cells are connected moreover in this
the electric current is usually partial and temporal order because of negative charges in the sale
which can maintain the flow of sodium and calcium inside the wall over all the sodium and
potassium channel are closed we are the + ions are not enter inside the body as per this action
potential is not generated at their peak level.
2: In this the central nervous system is protect themselves from the injury by using the
difference of mechanism which is associated with the skull and their bone. In this, the spinal
column is also associated in order to prevent any type of injury to the central nervous system.
However, they worked as a hard physical barrier in order to prevent the injuries. Moreover, the
fluid-filled is also placed on the Bone which is called as syrinx which provide shock
observance. As per this, the reflex arc usually consists five elements in this the main functions
of sensory receptor are to provide the recognition of sensors. Whereas, the sensory neuron is
providing messenger and the body integration helpful to Collab the cells and provide of
ordination with the neurons motor neurons are connected with each other in order to provide the
excitatory or inhibitory responses and so on.
3: There is a know any accurate differences between the spatial sensory motors and mixed
carnival nerve because they used to follow the sensory ganglia 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Moreover, the
carnival nerves carry some of the sensors which is 1 2 and 3 as per this the main functions of
motor carnival now are to provide the vision to the person and a sense of hearing in which
develop the potential in order to maintain the muscles movement which is associated with the
head and neck.
4: In this, the relationship between sensation and perception are associated with each other
because a situation is used to provide a vision. As per this, the brain activity is activated in order
to take any kind of physiological aspect which may be depend on the psychological fact
thoughts moreover the relationship between smell and taste. This is also associated with each
other where is smell and provide the fragrance in order to eat and with the help of olfactory
lobes the taste is recognize which is sweet, pleased and bitter and so on. This is perceived and
sensed by using olfactory lobes by their various factors which associated and linked with the
brain.
Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 1

5: To understand the image formation on the retina the first thing which is analyzed at the retina
is used to form inverted image which is not actual and their size is very small. Overall, the
process of image formation is started with the light rays are used to enter in the eyes and cross
in cornea and then the liquid-based surface of called as aqueous humor and after that they used
to test the retina and form the inverted real image. Moreover, the distance of the object is
smaller and this is the real mechanism of retina in order to create the image sensors as per
vision the systemic order of the organ parts in order to produce the images the light first passes
into the eyes. The main part is cornea after the attack was humorous and after that retina and
then inverted images formed to the errors in the cornea the cataract is occur due to less aqueous
humor. In this, it is used to create blindness and the defect are usually causes and the retina can
introduce the disease of retina refractive errors.
6: In this, the hormone is usually secreted from the hypothalamus gland are various in numbers
moreover some of them are growth hormone adrenocorticoids hormone follicle stimulating
hormone luteinizing hormone prolactin and so on where are released from the hypothalamus
with the pituitary gland. In this, the vasopressin hormone is also associated which is also called
as antidiuretic hormone. Moreover, that oxytocin animal hormones are also associated in this
the hypothalamic hormones are used to deliver the gland in order to released and innovating
hormone through a primary capillary to the veins. Moreover, in the anterior pituitary is
associated with this and they are also used to say create and originate various amounts which is
trained in such a form to circulate the hormones in the various capillaries. These all hormones
are used to make a positive effect in the body such as temperature control and also used to
provide the energy memorize the things and also enable the growth and development of the
body. Moreover, the posterior pituitary gland usually doesn’t have enough production channel
to promote any hormone but they have a function to student produce the hormones which is
separated from the hypothalamus. The paraventricular nuclei produced oxytocin, whereas
supraoptic nucleus produce vasopressin.
3 Chapter 19- 29
7: In this, about type of diabetes insipidus are connected with the hormone called vasopressin.
They are universally making a difference and the antidiuretic hormone is also called as
vasopressin. This helps to promote the water retention by using the proper approach of kidney
in which they keep the blood pressure at the healthy level to maintain the systems associated
with the excessive urine output and the main cause is to work as a create the factor on loop of
Henle in the kidney.
Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 2

8: In this, blood enters to the heart with the large ones and after that the interior and the superior
vena cava is used to provide oxygen flow in the various prospect of chamber of heart. In this,
the first systemic approach of blood is to enter on right auricles and passes through the open
tricuspid valves and enter to the right ventricle. Moreover, after that the heart include the motor
the superior vena cava the pulmonary artery. Usually, the work associated with the pulmonary
arteries is to take oxygen poor blood from the lungs whereas the oxygenated blood is to carry
by pulmonary vein to the body the coronary artery is help to supply the blood to the muscles of
heart. Moreover, there are some of the valves involved in the heart in order to provide the blood
to the body.
Arteries: Carry blood from the heart pulmonary arteries transport to the right ventricle.
Arterioles: Considered as a primary resistance vessel in used to distribute the flow of blood
in to calculate beds.
Venules: Small vessels is called as venule they are used to guide the blood for their way to
back to the heart.
Veins: Carry the blood to the circulatory system provide support in the circulation of blood
the heart.
9: Lymphocytes in the circulatory system take some of the essential scenarios. Whereas, the
80% of the t cells are associated in this and 20% of b cells. In this, the key cells are usually
involved in the factor of immune system which is mediated in nature. Whereas, b cells are a
part of adaptive immune system. As per this, the t-cells are composed heterogeneous
populations of cells and take the functions of the t cells and the response of innate immunity.
They used to produce cytokines in order to take the immune response. Moreover, the t cell
stimulates beta cells to prepare their own responses against various type of viruses and bacteria
they have their complementary receptors. They use to activate it and create various factors that
is essential and appropriate in order to kill the bacteria or any kind of antigens which is inside
the host body. It is very appropriate factor of the t cells and b cells where t cells are used to
carry the immune system which is mediated in nature and b cells carry all the factors and
secretion of antibody and such a form which can help to maintain the adaptive immune system.
The main function of t cells to maintain the immune system and play a vital role in the adaptive
immune responses. Whereas, the b cells are used to maintain the production of antigens specific
immunoglobulins.
10: You eat spaghetti with meatballs in marinara sauce and drink a glass of orange juice.
Describe the chemical components of your meal, the digestive events in the mouth, and the
content of your stomach one hour after you ingest the meal and juice, and describe what
happens to the chemical constituents in the stomach. Describe the digestive processes for each
of these nutrients in the small intestine, and the mechanisms for absorption of vitamins, water,
and electrolytes.
Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 3

The overall chemical component of the given constituent is 31% of carbohydrate 7% of protein
and low in carbohydrate. Moreover, they are also associated with 3.2 % of protein 10% sugar
13% cool water. The orange juice usually contains citric acid ascorbic acid and various amount
of sucrose glucose and fructose. They are usually maintaining the mechanism of disintegration
and dissolution in the body when these chemicals are usually entering in the stomach. They
used to come in the contact of bile juice which is secreted from the liver in order to digest food
as per the bile juice is used to create some of the mechanism of digestion and after that the food
is travel to the intestine. Whereas, the essential component such as carbohydrate protein are
extracted by the mechanism of energy formation and they are purely entering in the systemic
circulation of blood and afterwards the other waste material is used created from the body.
Overall, the pepsin and trypsin also play a vital role as enzyme in order to digest the food.
Whereas, carbohydrate protein is used to take breakdown into the structure of energy
formations and released in the body.
11: The glomerular filtration rate is defined as the urination factor and what are the filtration
rate which is achieved by kidney in order to maintain the filter of blood and the factor
associated with this. In this, the pressure which affect the globe normal filtration rate is due to
the pressure gradient in the glomerulus of the increased blood volume of the pressure which can
create hindrance in the glomerular filtration rate. The construction and the various arteries and
veins also used to promote the dimensions of the glomerular which can cause some of the
precious and order to the glomerular filtration. The excessive drinking of the beer can in trigger
the antidiuretic hormone which is also called as vasopressin. It is usually creating dehydrating
effect in the body and cause headache and various consequences and also increase the rate of
urination.
12: As per this, the acid base imbalance is necessary in order to maintain the dissociation and
association constant where the hydrogen ions are usually fall from the variate core of acid base
solution. The impairment between the acid base can create various entrance and also alter the
metabolic pathway of the body. The therapy of chloride resistant metabolic alkalosis is directed
towards the disease and this is usually maintained the acid base by providing acid and bases into
the blood. In this, the kidney helps to lungs to maintain the acid base balance which is useful in
order to produce particular dissociation by maintaining the chemical buffers for the change in
plasma concentration by binding with hydrogen ions. They also act as a defense against acid
base imbalance which is targeted by the interacting system which is called as chemical buffers
of the blood and the respiratory system. Moreover, the small factor of the renal system is always
approved to was the acid base imbalance.
13: After the ejaculation the sperm is usually travel to follow some step which can alter the
aspect of body. Moreover, the sperm is a usually target to reach up to the genital tract of the
female however the first stage is called capacitation. In this, the sperm is usually come in the
contact of the female genital tract as per the secretion the physiological maturation operations
and their process for the response else are usually attached with the free condition and
Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 4

prematurity and it depend on the acrosome reaction. As per the analysis there are various
membranes are usually following to the back channels of receptor after the removal of
glycoprotein. There are several reasons of acrosome cap which can be altered by the use of
reaction that is possible for the equation. As per the is the membrane filtration is helpful in
order to provide spermatogenesis for the sperm cells. Moreover, it can be external level when
come outside from the body does sperm is travel through the various sections such as duct
ejaculatory duct and urethra.
Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 5