Anatomy and Physiology for Health and Ill Health: Comprehensive Report

This report provides a comprehensive overview of human anatomy and physiology, examining organ systems, their functions, and interrelationships in both health and ill-health. It delves into the fundamental building blocks of the body, including cells, tissues, and organs, and explains how these components work together to maintain homeostasis. The report explores the differences between health and ill-health, discussing the impact of various factors and diseases on the body. Furthermore, it analyzes the interrelationships between the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems, highlighting how they collaborate to sustain life. The report also addresses the effects of ill-health on physiological measurements and concludes with a discussion on risk assessment and the development of a healthcare plan to minimize health risks. The report is a valuable resource for understanding the complexities of the human body and the importance of maintaining health.

Anatomy and Physiology for
Health and Ill Health

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................3
LO 1 Organ system in healthy human-being...................................................................................3
LO 2 Interrelationships of body systems in health and ill-health....................................................7
LO 3.................................................................................................................................................8
Physiological measurements and ill-health.................................................................................8
LO 4...............................................................................................................................................11
Risk assessment to minimise harm to ill-health........................................................................11
Healthcare plan..........................................................................................................................12
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................14
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................16

INTRODUCTION
The scientific study of the structures of body is referred as human anatomy. Some of its
structures are so tiny and small which can only be visible with the help of microscope.
Physiology, on the other hand, being a branch of biology, lays emphasis on the mechanisms of
living things starting from the very fundamental unit known as cell to the ionic and molecular
level and finally to the whole body and even the impact of external environment. Anatomy and
physiology both together study the organism’s structure and functions and their parts (What is
physiology, 2020).
NHS (National Health Service) is a healthcare system in England which is publicly funded
and also it is the second largest healthcare system which is single payer in the world. It is also
one of the four healthcare systems in UK.
This report will basically describe the different organ systems in a healthy human body. It
will also examine the functions of levels of organisation in human body along with functions of
different body systems. Furthermore, it will also discuss the interrelationships between the health
and ill-health from the perspective of physiology in order to maintain individual’s life and health.
The report will also elucidate about the effect of ill-health on the normal and abnormal
physiological measurements. At last, care plan will be made considering the physiological
measurements which can reduce the risks to health.
LO 1 Organ system in healthy human-being.
All living beings are made up of cells which is the fundamental unit of life. There are
infinite cells in all the parts of body. Group of cells that works together in order to perform
specific function are known as tissues. There are four main tissues in the human body. Two or
more tissues are combined to make an identifiable structure known as organ. Every organ
performs a specific function. Group of organs are combined to form an organ system. The human
organism I the most complex structure which is formed by many organ systems that are able to
work together for performing the functions of an individual.
There are mainly eleven organ systems in which specific organs are present (Organ systems and
Organs, 2020). The organ systems in the human body are as follows:
3

Integumentary: It plays a role of a barrier to invading chemicals and organisms. It also helps in
controlling the temperature of body. The organs inside this are skin, hair and subcutaneous
tissue.
Skeletal: This system provides support to the overall body and also enables the person to move.
It also protects all the internal organs and helps in storing the mineral in our body. It also
facilitates the blood formation in the human body. The organs composed in the skeletal system as
Bones, Ligaments, Cartilages and bone marrow (Shuler, 2019).
Muscular: It helps in locomotion and also facilitates the heat production. The organs in this
system are Muscles and Tendons.
Nervous: It helps in coordinating the activities of other organ systems. It also responds to
different sensations. The organs which together make the nervous system are Brain, Nerves,
Eyes, Ears and Spinal Cord.
Endocrine: This system is responsible for regulating the functions of body by using the
chemicals which are generally the hormones. The organs which are involved in this system are
Pituitary gland, adrenal glands, thymus, gonads, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, gonads and
pancreas (Fokides, 2018).
Cardiovascular: It performs the function of transporting nutrients and oxygen to the tissues.
Also does the function of removing the waste products from the body. Heart, blood and blood
vessels together performs the function of cardiovascular system.
Lymphatic: It returns the tissue fluid to blood and also defends against foreign organisms. The
organs which makes this system are Spleen, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels and Lymph nodes.
Respiratory: It performs the function of exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
organs composed in this system are lungs, larynx, trachea, pharynx and nasal cavity.
Digestive: It performs the function of processing of food and also helps in absorbing the
nutrients into the body. This system consists of organs like Stomach, Liver, Oesophagus,
Intestinal tract, pancreas and salivary glands (Musil and et.al., 2019).
Urinary: This helps in eliminating wastes and also regulates the pH and blood volume. The
organs which make this system are Kidneys, Urethra and urinary bladder.
Reproductive: It produces germ cells such as eggs and sperm and also provides environment for
foetus (female) growth. It consists of organs like ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, prostate
gland, testes and external genitalia.
4

Function of Cell
These are the basic building blocks of all the living beings. These are present in trillions
in the various parts of human body. They mainly provide the structure to the body, performs the
function of taking nutrients from food, converting the nutrients into energy and various other
specialized functions (What is a cell, 2020).
Role of cell during osmosis and diffusion
Diffusion is generally defined as the molecule’s movement from the greater
concentration area to the lesser one. In human body also, cells are responsible for moving the
materials in and out of their cytoplasm which is present in it and it does this through cell
membranes. These membranes are semi-permeable which means it allows only selected
materials to pass through them and rejects others. The phospholipid bilayer and its embedded
proteins mediates the movement of molecules among which some act as transport channels for
the molecules that are rejected by the membranes and are not allowed to pass through it such as
ions and carbohydrates (How do diffusion and osmosis relate to the function of a cell membrane,
2020). Most of the ions are brought into the cell by the process of diffusion which is basically the
net movement of particles from high concentration to low concentration which is also known as
moving down a concentration gradient. This process is net directional when happens in human
body, the aqueous environment is the cell, dissolved ions are the solutes and the water in which
the ions moves is the solvent. It can also take place across the cell membrane including the ions
which mostly moves through a protein channel.
Osmosis basically refers to the movement of water specifically through the semi-
permeable membrane with the solvent flowing through area having low solute to a high
concentration area (Cell Membranes and Diffusion, 2020). In this case, the water is not allowed
to flow through and involves same process as diffusion.
Role of body system in homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability in which relatively stable internal state is maintained. The
internal environment of all the humans are to be maintained in order to process energy and
survive ultimately. In addition to temperature, the body has to maintain homeostasis for
numerous factors. Along with this, the ion, glucose and pH concentration in blood must be
5

steady (Chandel and et.al., 2016). So, the various processes which helps body to control its
internal environment are collectively known as homeostasis. It can happen even in a cell or in a
complete body. If the cells, organs and organ systems are not getting their required things and
their metabolic needs are not fulfilled, then it states the ill-health. If the constant environment is
maintained and all cells are provided with all the things which are needed to survive such as
nutrients, oxygen and waste removal, then the body is healthy (Rankin and Artis, 2018).
The endocrine system of body plays a significant role in homeostasis because hormones are
responsible for regulating the activity of body cells. The stimulus controls the release of
hormones in the blood. It can either cause increase or decrease in the hormone’s amount
secreted.
Difference between health and ill health
Health is a state in which does not only shows the absence of disease or illness but
complete physical, mental and social well-being is maintained. Good health or health impacts the
way in which person feels and function and involve in the community. Though the health mainly
focusses on the physical health of the human body but the mental and social dimensions are
equally important and cannot be ignored while discussing about health. Healthy person means
the person is not suffering from any disease (Illness, disease, and sickness absence: an empirical
test of differences between concepts of ill health, 2020).
There are many factors which can change the healthy person to body of ill-health such as tobacco
use, unhealthy diet, harmful use of alcohol and physical inactivity. Good health of a person can
be reflected in their good behaviours (Lee and et.al., 2019).
Ill-health on the other side is a condition of inferior health in which some of the disease or
function impairment is present but it is not as such serious like the ill-health of elders in which
they also need the personal and financial support. There are various diseases from common colds
to cancers. These can be infectious or chronic. Diseases are not caused by particular organ and
organ systems but they can be due to toxins in water or air, noise pollution, trauma and accidents,
workplace hazards, pathogens and health care interventions (Olivieri and et.al., 2017). An injury
can also be an infection which can be a disease. There can be range of causes for a disease
instead of one organ not functioning well.
6

LO 2 Interrelationships of body systems in health and ill-health
All the organs and organ systems functions well in order to keep the individual healthy
and strong. But, along with functioning themselves alone, it is equally important to work by
making interrelationship with each other. They interact with each other just to keep the body
machine alive and able to work well. During this interaction, they do not forget to perform their
own functions but they combine their functions with the functions of other organs so that they
can help the individual to keep themselves healthy and more functioning.
This can be more clear by discussing the most important interaction of organ system i.e.,
cardiovascular system, digestive system and respiratory system (Health and illness, 2020).
The main functions of digestive system are taking food, breaking down into nutrients i.e., good
and also the waste i.e., bad. These functions are carried out by stomach, oesophagus which is a
tube from stomach to mouth and large & small intestines.
The major function which is performed by respiratory system are breathing which involves
taking in oxygen and pushing out carbon dioxide. The organs involved to perform this function
are lungs and trachea which is a long tube which goes from lungs to nose/ mouth.
The key function of circulatory system is transporting blood throughout the body by performing
the function of circulating. The organs which are involved in this process are blood vessels
(arteries, capillaries and veins) and heart.
The interrelationship between these three organ system can be shown as:
The circulatory system transports and carries the oxygen and nutrients through the blood to every
body part along with carrying waste in cells and CO2 away from the parts. By doing this, waste
of cell goes to kidneys for filtering and disposing (Sevencan and et.al., 2019). CO2 then goes to
the lungs to be exhaled. So, the kidneys and lungs share a close relationship with the
cardiovascular system. The kidneys perform the function of filtering through blood for taking out
the waste which is then gets out of the body (Boudoulas and et.al., 2017). The lungs perform the
function of breathing in oxygen which is then given to the blood so that the circulatory system
can carry it throughout the body and takes the CO2 from blood and is then breathed out.
Circulatory system provides the oxygen and nutrients to all the body parts through blood which
is used by the body to have energy.
7

The respiratory system performs the function of inhaling oxygen which is beneficial for the body
which is given to the circulatory system so that it can be transported through blood throughout
the body (Williamson and Lee, 2018). It also deals in exhaling Carbon-Dioxide (CO2) which is
then taken by lungs from blood i.e., the part of circulatory system and pushes it out of the body.
The digestive system obtains the nutrients from food which is then handed to the blood which is
then again carried by the circulatory system to the areas where they need to go. This system also
performs the function of filtering out waste from food and pushing it through intestines and out
of the body.
LO 3
Physiological measurements and ill-health
As per the NHS, Physiological measurements refer to those services which are provided
majorly focussing on the assessment of the functions of organ systems, provision of information
to the extent of the illness, disability or disease and providing and responding to therapeutic
interventions. In totality there are eight distinct disciplines that can be recognised in the
physiological measurements which offer services across all specialities in clinics and conduct
almost 300 different specialist examinations and around 10 million procedures which are
conducted every year (Leinikka and et.al., 2016.). The physiological measurement aims to
monitor and measure various types of parameters that occur in the primary organ and associated
body systems and give information regarding the extent of the ill health which is an integral
component of the services.
Physiological measurements are foundationally used for monitoring the reactions
displayed by a person with ill-health or a patient. It covers the extent of dilation of pupils, the
rate of breathing, the rate of the pulse of the person, the colour of the skin of the person, the
perspiration condition, the level of blood sugar in the body (pre or post insulin levels) etc.
Primarily, there are eight disciplines in the measurement of physiological conditions and can be
elaborated into the following divisions (NHS, 2020). All the diagnostics and investigations that
undertake these areas comprises of various processes and delivered by professionals like clinical
physiologists and assistant practitioners in the healthcare team. It is thereby noteworthy to there
are complex pathways and apprehending parts id critical for effective delivery of every activity
and function (Shabat-Simon and et.al., 2018).
8

1. Audiology: This discipline consists of a broad range of assessments pertaining to hearing and
balance. The evaluation that are conducted under this area help in the determination of
functional abilities, potential pathologies and effects on normal activities undertaken on a
daily basis. After the assessment, proper care pathways and interventions are selected for the
treatment and support, although more frequently strategies like rehabilitation-based support
like digital signal process hearing aids, assistance-based listening, counselling can be put
forward for improving the abilities of people with theses problems in order to participated in
the daily activities. The audiology diagnosis takes place in a quite clinical room where the
background noise id below 35 dBA and the room sis ether soundproof or electrically shielded
and proofed (Shabat-Simon and et.al., 2018).
2. Cardiac Physiology: The services based in this discipline are associated with diagnosis and
management of people tat are known to be suffering from or are suspected to have any
cardiovascular disease. The procedures pertaining to both invasive and non-invasive
diagnosis and interventions are conducted in extensive range. The physiological
measurements include echocardiography, electrophysiology, recording of blood pressure,
testing of exercise stress and electrocardiogram or ECG (NHS, 2020).
3. Gastro-intestinal physiology: These investigations are conducted for the assessment of the
functions of the entire Gastro intestinal tract from the initial stage of swallowing to disorders
of defaecation. The majority of the measurements evaluate activities in the muscles and
sphincter functions, while others evaluate enzymes for establishment of outcomes like food
intolerance, gastric ulcers and malabsorption.
4. Neuro physiology: The examinations in this discipline aim at diagnosing a broad range of
conditions that affect the peripheral and central nervous system. It consists of testing the
electrical brain functions, the spinal cord and the nerves of the muscles and limbs which are
all basically diagnostic. It includes studies of the nerve conduction, electromyography and
evoked potentials (Dalenberg, Hoogeveen and Lorist, 2018).
5. Ophthalmic and Vision science: This discipline is related to the assessment of functions and
structures of the vision systems. The information that is obtained from the diagnosis is
referred to and used by ophthalmologists for aiding the clinical management process. The
areas evaluated are visual activities and refractive errors, the field of a person’s vision,
9

anatomical change, ocular motility, the vision’s colour, motion and temporal vision
perceptions (NHS, 2020).
6. Respiratory and sleep physiology: this discipline involves a broad range of diagnostic
testing and therapeutic provisions in people with suspicions of respiratory diseases and other
conditions which directly impact the functioning of patient’s respiratory system. The sleepy
physiological diagnosis consists of identification of abnormalities in sleep patterns and
associated pathology and also for the assessment and provision of therapeutic interventions.
The diagnosis ranges from areas of asthma, allergy, lung fibrosis, sleep breathing disorders,
pre-operative screening, breathlessness, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (Dalenberg,
Hoogeveen and Lorist, 2018).
7. Urodynamics: This is a series of measurements that conduct investigation of the function of
the lower urinary tract which consists of bladder and urethra. The physiological
measurements involved in the assessment of the bladder and the urethra consists of
measuring the flow and pressure. The major symptoms are incontinence or frequency in
urination, strong urgency to urinate or associated pain and infections.
8. Vascular technology: This discipline aims to measure and monitor the diseases that occur in
veins and arteries and adopts the diagnostic method of ultrasound for imaging the blood
vessels and evaluate the blood flow where the investigation is mainly diagnostic (NHS,
2020).
Apart from these, in general terms the physiological measurement of patient can be
evaluated through assessment of the vital signs. Vital signs are the body’s most basic functions
that help in the assessment of the physical health of a person which also give clues to what
underlying disease the person might have ad show progress towards recovery. All the ranges of
the vital signs differ with the age, gender, weight and overall health condition. As per the case
study, Mrs Krebs, Vital Sign Measurements are indicating as: Blood pressure: 87/56 mm Hg
right arm which differs from the ideal range of 120/80, Pulse: 113 bpm (radial), 2+, regular
rhythm but ideal range is 60-100 bpm, Temperature 38.7°C tympanic but ideal range is 36.5°C to
37.5°C, Urine colour: Dark golden yellow which is a sign that she is either dehydrated or a lot of
waste products might be circulating in the body, Current weight: 60Kg, Body Mass Index:
18Kg/m2 which is quite low as the ideal range is 18.6 to 24.9 and indicates she is underweight.
10

From these measurements it can be observed that all the physiological measurements show
abnormal range as the patient suffers from presence of ketones and low volume of blood and
kidney problems (Obermeyer, Samra and Mullainathan, 2017).
LO 4
Risk assessment to minimise harm to ill-health
Risk management in clinical context refers to the approaches for improvement of the
quality and safety of people who have ill-health and identification of situations and conditions
that might put the patients at risk, and is followed by action plan for prevention, mitigation and
treatment of those risks. There are various clinical risk assessment tools for various diseases such
as the Braden scale, water low score, CKD heating map etc. As per the case study, it can be
understood that Mrs. Krebs have tendency to develop renal failure or chronic kidney disease due
the diagnostics results indicating kidney issues and abnormality in the physiological
measurements (Jerčić, Sennersten and Lindley, 2020). The primary symptoms shown by the
patient are feelings of tiredness, depression and loss of appetite as the patient is severely
underweight with BMI less than 18.
In the initial assessment it was also noted that the patient had ketones and proteins in the
urine and the colour was dark golden yellow. The skin of the patient is also flaky and itchy. The
presence of low volume blood denotes hypovolemic shock due to kidney related disease. The
primary symptoms that could be observed from the assessment which leads to kidney disease
where kidneys might function 15% less than normal which are observed in the patient are low
blood pressure, high proteins in urine and lower body weight (Osorio and Fotis, 2020). The
patient tends to show all major symptoms intensely therefore the risk of developing renal failure
and chronic kidney disease can be termed high. Risk map that can be used for the evaluation of
the level of risk for CKD for the patient is as follows:
11

Figure 1: CDK risk assessment tool
Source: kidney.org, 2020
Healthcare plan
As per the case study, it is estimated that the patient is suffering from kidney problems
which can lead up to acute renal failure. The healthcare interventions that can be undertaken for
the improvement of the ill health of the patience and reduction in associated outcomes is devised
as follows:
Objectives
 Maintenance of optimal control and mitigation of blood glucose and blood pressure
 Avoiding further progression of this ailment to cardiac involvement
 Maintaining appropriate fluid balance at all times
 Prevention of any associated complications
12
CKD Risk Map

Interventions Rationale
Monitoring
Monitoring Vitals of the patient
The patient has to maintain as reasonable blood pressure
for protection of kidney from further damage. Fever
tends to indicate infection or progression of the disease.
Monitoring and management of
blood sugar
The blood sugar has to be kept in the optimal range as it
can put further stress on the kidney (Sun and et.al., 2019).
Assessment of the cardiopulmonary
system
Due to inappropriate glomerular filtration, fluid retention
can happen, which may stress the heart and lungs
Monitoring the diagnostic tests such
as GFR (<15 kidney failure and <60
kidney disease), ultrasound, biopsy
of kidney or chest x-ray if required
GFR refers to Glomerular Filtration Rate which shows
functionality of the kidney, Albumin -urine test indicates
decreased functionality of kidney, Ultrasounds helps in
unusual features via imaging
Evaluation of mental status For noticing changes in the mental status and
development of confusion etc (Stumm and et.al., 2017).
Monitoring the urine specific gravity To measure the kidney’s ability for concentrating urine
Monitoring the regular body weight Any weight gain or weight loss has to be recorded
Assessment of skin and face To measure any occurrence of oedema
Monitor blood urea nitrogen and
creatinine
It is used for assessment of renal dysfunctional
management. Creatinine is a significant value indicator as
is not impacted by dietary changes, hydration levels and
tissue catabolism. The need for dialysis will be when the
ration will be more than 10:1(Doshi and Wish, 2020)
Restricting the fluid intake To intimately monitor the intake of fluids for prevention
of overloading and decreased retention and for promotion
of emptying the bladder.
Nutrition and dietary interventions The food intake has to be low in sodium and protein as
the kidney have decreased functionality and are not able
to remove wastes produced through process of proteins
13

Medical interventions:
Administering diuretics, Bumex,
Lasix, Demadex and Osmitrol
For flushing the tubular lumen of the debris, promotion
of proper urine volume and reduction of hyperkalaemia
(Yu, Yan and Xia, 2018).
Administer Antihypertensives like
clonidine and prazosin
Might be administered for the treatment of hypertension
which is caused due to impact of lower renal blood flow
or circulate volume overload.
To administer blocking of the
calcium channels
Giving nephrotoxic ATN for reduction of higher calcium
in kidney and for maintaining and improving GFR.
Self-management interventions Beneficial for decline in the urine protein, bp levels,
exercising capacity for the longer duration
Therapeutic interventions For emotional well-being of the patient (Doshi and Wish,
2020)
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the above report that the organ systems within a health human
body are classified as Integumentary with organs inside like skin and hair, Skeletal such as
Bones, Ligaments, Cartilages and bone marrow, Muscular like Muscles and Tendons and
Nervous which contain Brain, Nerves, Eyes, Ears and Spinal Cord. The interrelationship of body
systems was analyzed from the perspective of in health and ill health in physiological terms.
Investigation of physiological measurements in the body with respect to the NHS laid practices
and guidelines was explained in detail and defined as those services which are provided majorly
focussing on the assessment of the functions of organ systems, provision of information to the
extent of the illness, disability or disease and providing and responding to therapeutic
interventions. The eight disciplines of physiological measurements were elaborated Audiology,
Cardiac Physiology, Gastro-intestinal physiology, Neuro physiology, Ophthalmic and Vision
science, Respiratory and sleep physiology, Urodynamics and Vascular technology. The case
study of a patient was analysed and the physiological measurement abnormalities were studied
and its impact on ill health. Risk assessment concluded that the patient suffers from kidney issues
and is highly probe to renal failure. Appropriate healthcare plan was devised and interventions
14

were stated on the basis of patient’s physiological measurements which contributed to reduction
in risks to health.
15

REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Boudoulas, K.D. and et.al., 2017. The cardio-renal interrelationship. Progress in cardiovascular
diseases. 59(6). pp.636-648.
Chandel, N.S. and et.al., 2016. Metabolic regulation of stem cell function in tissue homeostasis
and organismal ageing. Nature cell biology. 18(8). pp.823-832.
Dalenberg, J.R., Hoogeveen, H.R. and Lorist, M.M., 2018. Physiological measurements: EEG
and fMRI. In Methods in Consumer Research, Volume 2 (pp. 253-277). Woodhead
Publishing.
Doshi, S. and Wish, J.B., 2020. Strategies to Reduce Rehospitalization in Patients with CKD and
Kidney Failure. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology.
Fokides, E., 2018. Tablets in primary schools: Results of a study for teaching the human organ
systems. International Journal of Smart Education and Urban Society (IJSEUS). 9(3).
pp.1-16.
Jerčić, P., Sennersten, C. and Lindley, C., 2020. Modeling cognitive load and physiological
arousal through pupil diameter and heart rate. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 79(5),
pp.3145-3159.
Lee, M.J. and et.al., 2019. Protective role of skeletal muscle mass against progression from
metabolically healthy to unhealthy phenotype. Clinical endocrinology. 90(1). pp.102-
113.
Leinikka, M., and et.al., 2016. Physiological measurements of drawing and forming activities.
Musil, V. and et.al., 2019. A plea for an extension of the anatomical nomenclature: Organ
systems. Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 19(1). p.1.
Obermeyer, Z., Samra, J.K. and Mullainathan, S., 2017. Individual differences in normal body
temperature: longitudinal big data analysis of patient records. Bmj, 359.
Olivieri, F. and et.al., 2017. Circulating miRNAs and miRNA shuttles as biomarkers: perspective
trajectories of healthy and unhealthy aging. Mechanisms of ageing and
development. 165. pp.162-170.
Osorio, C. and Fotis, T., 2020. Acute kidney injury. Care of the Acutely Ill Adult, p.135.
Rankin, L.C. and Artis, D., 2018. Beyond host defense: emerging functions of the immune
system in regulating complex tissue physiology. Cell. 173(3). pp.554-567.
Sevencan, A. and et.al., 2019. The incidence and interrelationship of concomitant anomalies in
congenital scoliosis. Turkish neurosurgery. 29(3).
Shabat-Simon, M., and et.al., 2018. Objective physiological measurements but not subjective
reports moderate the effect of hunger on choice behavior. Frontiers in psychology, 9,
p.750.
Shuler, M.L., 2019. Advances in organ-, body-, and disease-on-a-chip systems. Lab on a
Chip. 19(1). pp.9-10.
Stumm, E.M.F., and et.al., 2017. Educational nursing intervention to reduce the
hyperphosphatemia in patients on hemodialysis. Rev Bras Enferm, 70(1), pp.26-33.
Sun, M., and et.al., 2019, August. Early Prediction of Acute Kidney Injury in Critical Care
Setting Using Clinical Notes and Structured Multivariate Physiological Measurements.
In MedInfo (pp. 368-372).
Williamson, J. and Lee, C., 2018. What's Behind That Smile: Using Analogies, Facial
Expressions, and Special Senses to Demonstrate the Interactions Between Body
16

Systems in Anatomy and Physiology Lab Classes. The American Biology
Teacher. 80(9). pp.661-667.
Yu, M., Yan, L. and Xia, C., 2018. Effect of Individualized Nursing Intervention on Acute
Kidney Injury after Cardiopulmonary Bypass.
Online
CDK risk assessment tool, kidney.org, 2020, Available through:
<https://www.kidney.org/sites/default/files/01-10-
7027_ABG_HeatMap_Card_3_0.pdf>
Cell Membranes and Diffusion, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :<
https://www.jove.com/science-education/10622/diffusion-and osmosis#:~:text=Water
%20moves%20across%20cell%20membranes%20by%20diffusion%2C%20in%20a
%20process,area%20of%20high%20solute%20concentration.>
Health and illness, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :<
https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/fc2c053f-7707-437e-90b3-227818bba0a5/1_1-
health-illness.pdf.aspx>
How do diffusion and osmosis relate to the function of a cell membrane, 2020. [ONLINE]
Available through :< https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-diffusion-and-osmosis-
relate-to-the-function-of-a-cell-membrane#:~:text=It%20allows%20only%20selected
%20necessary,carbon%20di%20oxide%20and%20oxygen.>
Illness, disease, and sickness absence: an empirical test of differences between concepts of ill
health, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :< https://jech.bmj.com/content/59/6/450>
Organ systems and Organs, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :<
https://toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov/08-003.html>
Organ systems and Organs, 2020. Available through: <https://toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov/08-
003.html>
Physiological measurement, NHS, 2020. Available through:
<https://www.nlg.nhs.uk/services/medical-physics/physiological-measurements
What is a cell, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :<
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/cell/#:~:text=The%20human
%20body%20is%20composed,can%20make%20copies%20of%20themselves.>
What is physiology, 2020. [ONLINE] Available through :< https://www.physoc.org/explore-
physiology/what-is-physiology/#:~:text=Physiology%20is%20the%20science
%20of,influence%20of%20the%20external%20environment.>
17

What is physiology, 2020. Available through:
<https://www.physoc.org/explore-physiology/what-is-physiology/#:~:text=Physiology
%20is%20the%20science%20of,influence%20of%20the%20external%20environment.>
18

19