Scientific Literature Review: Antarctic Circumpolar Current Analysis

This report provides a scientific literature review and detailed analysis of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), the largest and strongest ocean current, encompassing the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. The report investigates the ACC's dynamics, formation, and effects on global climate patterns, including its role in maintaining the Antarctic ice sheet and influencing the formation of ice ages. It examines the impact of westerly winds, ozone layer depletion, and global warming on the ACC's strength and movement, and the resultant effects on the climate. The report also discusses the subtropical and Antarctic convergences and the impact of the opening of the Tasmanian Gateway. The analysis includes figures illustrating current movement and the Antarctic frozen continent, and explores the implications of ACC changes on sea levels and climate stability. Overall, the report highlights the critical role of the ACC in the global climate system and the potential consequences of its alteration due to human activities.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 1
ANTARCTIC CIRCUMPOLAR CURRENT
Name
Institution

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 2
Scientific Literature Review
An interest to know what actually is behind the continuous, directed movement of water in
oceans is so vital in understanding natural phenomenon. Therefore Ocean current is a continuous
directed movement of ocean water which is generated by several forces in water. This forces
may be as a result of moving winds, breaking waves, Coriolis effects, cabling, salinity and
temperature differences. The direction and strength of these currents is determined by factors
such as shoreline configuration, interaction with other currents and depth contours. Therefore the
ocean currents over time plays a dominant role of determine the climatic pattern of a particular
region.
Generally ocean current can be divided into two, namely; Ocean surface water currents and deep
ocean water currents. Most of the surface oceanic currents are wind driven. In the northern
hemisphere they develop clockwise spirals while in southern hemisphere anti-clockwise rotation.
Temperature and density gradient controls the deep ocean currents. Research by S.R.Rintoul in
Encyclopedia of Ocean Science shows that most of the surface Oceanic Currents are warm and
they originate near the equator. On the other hand cold water originate from near the poles.
There are many Ocean currents that exist in the Oceans. They vary in direction of flow, area
under coverage and the strength. The most common Ocean currents on earth as per Alan R.
Longhurt in the book “Ecological Geography of the Sea” are shown in table 1 below. The table
comprises of the common ocean currents across the oceans of the world with their nature
described.

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Current Nature
Antarctic Circumpolar Current Cold
Carlifornia current Cold
Peruvian/Humboldt Current Cold
Kuril/Oya shio current cold
Okhotsk current Cold
North Equatorial current Warm
North Pacific Current Warm
El Nino Current Warm
Counter Equatorial Current warm
Tsushima current Warm
South Equatorial current Warm
East Australian Current Warm
Agulhas current Warm
South west Monsoon Current Warm
South Indian Ocean Current Cold
Through a series of scientific research, Stephen R Rintoul and Carolina Ernani discovered that
among the many ocean currents in the world, Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the largest
and strongest current. The current is so strong as it carries a capacity of about 137 ×106 m3/s. The
current connects the three water basins that is Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. It
covers approximately 21000 km distance. It transport water through the passage between

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 4
Antarctica Peninsula and South America (Drake Passage). The detailed analysis of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (ACC) is covered below.
`
Question 1
Dynamic of ACC Over time Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is a very strong current
which flows within the whole world/globe. The current surrounds the continent of Antarctic ,
that’s where its name was derived. The current continues as it flows eastwards to cover t5he
southern portions of Indian , Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. ACC was first discovered by a British
astronomer by the name Edmond Halley. This happened during his survey to the above named
regions in period 1699-1700 HMS paramour expedition. His discovery was seconded by
Mariners james Cookin 1772-1775, Russian by the name Thaddeus Bellingshausen in 1819-
1821.
Pradal & Gnanadesikan (2014), ACC is one of the most rudimentary and mightiest current of
the oceans . it poses a relative speed of 20cm/s. the current has the capability to transport large
amount of water than any other current in the world. The current has a depth which ranges from
2000-4000m below the sea level while covering a width of about 2000km. The eastward flow of
ACC is strongly driven by Westerly winds. However note that the average wind speed within the
region between the latitude 41°S and 61°S ranges between 16 to 25 knots while the very strong
currents lies within the latitudes 45°S and 55°S.
Basing on historical facts, zonal variation ought to be the basis that can generally define the
current boundaries of ACC in the southern oceans. The same variation has enable classification

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 5
of regions bordered with fronts. Considering the northern part of ACC we have the Subtropical
Fronts(SBF), which covers between 36°S and 47°S. Within this region the average Sea Surface
Temperature (SST) ranges from about 12°C to 8°C. Sali8nity in this region also decreases from
34.9 to 34.6. The other zone surrounding the ACC include Sub Antarctic Zone (SAZ), Polar
Frontal Zone (PFZ) in addition to Zone of Antarctic (AZ) (Small, Tomas & Bryan 2014, p.
828).
Yang, Galbraith & Palter (2014),argue that Westerly winds possess huge wind force near the
water surface. ACC current on the other hand which is approximately in geostrophic equilibrium
has its inclined layers. The layers have a constant density and the inclination is meant to balance
the height elevation of the current’s northward sea surface. Therefore the ACC come as result of
being in line with the prevailing westerly winds and the resulting geographic current. The
stronger gradient gives to emission of strong flow leading to formation of fronts.
ACC has come along with very many effects on the current climatic pattern. The increased
human activities which entirely lead to ozone layer depletion is a major threat in conjunction
with the ACC. With the depletion of the ozone layer, westerly winds carry more heat which end
up melting the snow in the Antarctica. Ozone layer depletion and greenhouse effect are the
driving force behind the increased magnitude of the Antarctic Circumpolar.
Resent research shows that the current will increase in strength and move towards the polar in
the 21st century. The effect of this prediction is that it will displace large amount of water in the
arctic polar. The proof of the prediction can be simulated by the image below.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 6
Figure 1: Current movement towards the poles
The most recent research has shown that the southern edge of ACC as viewed by oceanographers
has clearly indicated the boundary between warm Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans and
Antarctica cold waters. However further research has shown that the boundary is shifting due
adverse factors such as westerly winds and global warming.
Question 2
Formation of ice age by ACC

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 7
Yuan, Kaplan & Cane (2018), denotes that Antarctica is seen as frozen continent surrounded by
icy water as per the view from the satellite. ACC over time has led to very many dynamic within
the coastal oceans. The major change among many other is maintaining the Antarctica region
cool and frozen. The volume of water being carried by the ACC Averagely range between 165
million to 182 million cubic meters of water from west to east. The water temperature in the
oceans rises slowly at the beginning while it resume with a very sharp gradient. ACC therefore
contributes much to the maintaining of steady iocy temperature in the Antarctica by maintaining
the boundaries. This is the root course of formation of ice age in Antarctica. As the ocean waters
of gets cold, the ocean density increases and the water become more salty. Below is the figure
that illustrates how the Antarctic is surrounded by Ocean waters.
Figure 2: Antarctica frozen continent

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Question 3
Effects of ACC to the climate
ACC over time has impacted either positively or negatively to the global climatic patterns. ACC
has come along with very much effect on the current climatic pattern. Human activities have
increased of which some ha contributed entirely to ozone layer depletion. It is a major threat in
conjunction with the ACC. With the depletion of the ozone layer, westerly winds carry more heat
which end up melting the snow in the Antarctica. Ozone layer depletion and greenhouse effect
are the driving force behind the increased magnitude of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
Resent research shows that the current will increase in strength and move towards the polar in
the 21st century. The effect of this prediction is that it will displace large amount of water in the
arctic polar.
ACC which is not as well immune to change has affected the southern oceans water masses. It
has waters to be warm and fresh in the top most surface of the waterbodies of about 2000m.
Antarctic bottom water which constitutes the deepest layer within the ocean has also been
confirmed warm and fresh due to the circumpolar current of Antarctic.
The increased strength of the circumpolar Antarctic current has been evidenced with increase in
the strength of wind of increment percentage of about 40% over the past 40 years. This has
further resulted in increase in eddies that move towards the poles. The common hotspot areas

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 9
which have been adversely affected by these changes include, Kerulen Plateau, Drake Passage,
Tasmania and new Zeeland.
Based on the research done by Wolfe & Cessi (2014), they denote that Antarctic Circumpolar
Current has therefore greatly brought impact to the modern climatic paten over time. We have
observed many changes already. The question that can be generated after all this observation is
how this increased transfer of heat across the ACC will impact the rate of global sea level and the
stability of the Antarctic ice sheet. Consequently the ACC has been the main cause for the
maintained ice sheet in the Antarctic Polar Regions.
Water and heat budget
The amount of water and heat from all sources that enter the atmosphere must be equal to the
same amount of heat and water from the atmosphere to the earth. Any variation to these results
into increase in atmospheric temperature and amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Global
water budget is natural hazard. Large amount of Water get evaporated from the Ocean which
can entirely cover the whole globe at relative water depth of about one meter. However the water
eventually condenses and fall back to the earth surface in form of rain.
Figure 3: ACC climatic changes

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Part 2
Question 4
Introduction
The opening up of Tasmanian Gateway comes along with many changes. It led to the tectonic
opening up of the oceanic gateways. ACC therefore occupies this particular circumglobal
pathway in the southern oceans. Tasmanian gateway opened long time ago(33.5 million years
ago) . The onset of ACC brought about the major changes in ocean circulation. Of the changes
are discussed below.
The subtropical convergence
This is a zone found between latitudes 38°S and 42°S. this lies beneath the zero wind-stress curl.
The zone is a result of tightening up of the isotherms in the range of temperature between 15°C
and 12°C. The zone is characterized with eddies that can take altitude width up to 5° and a band
of strong mesoscale meanders. Meanders extend their strength to the south of Africa, East of
Patagonia, New Zeeland and Tasmania (Maffre 2018, pp.1209 )
Subtropical convergent Zone is evident in Indian Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean and West Pacific
Ocean. Meeting of superficial tropical water driven by ACC is the root cause for the subtropical
convergence.
Figure 4: subtropical convergence zone

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The Antarctic convergence
Antarctic convergent is a zone within the Southern Oceans that is approximately 32 to 48 km and
20 to 30 meters wide. The zone has varying longitudes and latitudes. It extends across Indian
Ocean, pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. The zone forms a curve which continuously encircles
the Antarctica. It is a point where subantantarctic warm waters meet the northward-flowing
Antarctic cold water. It refers to a second tightening up of the isotherms within a range of
temperatures between 2°C and 5°C. The Antarctic Convergence is more distinct than the
Subtropical convergence. However its location is not constant, it varies depending on regions
and seasons (Cessi, Wolfe & Ludka 2010, p. 2090)
This convergence is as a result of uprising of deep Atlantic waters. It is caused by Antarctic
deep-water masses in its southern movement. The figure below show a map that clearly outline
the Antarctic convergence zone.
Figure 5: Antarctic convergence

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The Antarctic divergence
This is located between 63°S and 65°S. Antarctic Divergence is as a result of the divergence
between the polar currents and Antarctic Circumpolar Current; it also come as a result of
thermohaline circulation which is caused by different water masses meeting in this area
(TCHERNIA, p65-66-67).
Figure 6: The ACC divergence

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Despite the relative slow speed of the eastward flow of that does not exceed than 21 cm s-1 in
regions between the fronts, the ACC moves more than enough water than any other current .The
ACC extends from the sea surface to relative depths of 2500-4500 m that can be as wide nearly
2100 km. This tremendous cross-sectional area allows for the current's large volume transport.
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current's eastward flow is driven by strong westerly winds. The
mean wind velocity between 41°S and 61°S is 16 to 25 knots with strong winds typically
between 46°S and 56°S. Historically.
Drained by boundaries described above, the ACC is generated by two phenomenon’s; it is a
wind driven and a geostrophic current at once.
A wind driven current
According to Olbers & Visbeck (2005),Within the southern Oceans, strong regular winds are
generated by each subtropical anticline. Generally whenever winds blow across the ocean surface,
friction between the water surface and the wind. These winds transfer horizontal momentum to the sea
surface and drag water in its direction and thus explain the movement of surface waters (TCHERNIA,
p54-55). The friction then generates some energy. The energy the sets on the surface of water and it
generate currents and waves. The energy strength however varies depending on factors such us the
surface tension of the water, speed of the wind and roughness of the water surface.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 14
The second reason for the continued flow of wind across the ocean surface is as a result of
gradient on the water surface created by wind driven currents. The gradient causes water to flow
from high pressure region to low pressure region . According to Ekman’s theory, the deflection
of the water surface by the wind is set and an angle cum sole to the wind. The angle is predicted
to be 45 degrees.
Figure 7: Ekman Layer
Geostrophic current
The deflection of water masses and air flowing horizontally on a presser gradient in such a way
that Coriolis effect and pressure gradient force are balanced results into Geostrophic flow. This
flow causes winds and Antarctic Ocean Current to flow around low and high pressure region in a
circular path.
As this is in the Southern Hemisphere, Ekman transport is to the left of the wind, and the
surface of the sea has the gradient which face towards the Antarctic continent. Finally it
generates a geostrophic current to the East. The current flow in the same direction as the wind.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 15
This is the reason for the extension of the ACC to greater depths than the surface wind driven
layer in the Southern Oceans (Ocean Circulation, p151).
ACC WATER MASSES
ACC comprises of four different water masses. The four water masses include sub Antarctic
Mode water (SAMW), Antarctic Intermediate water(AAIW), Circumpolar Deep Water(CDW)
and Antarctic Bottom water(AABW). Below is brief explanation of each of the four water
masses.
Figure 8: ACC water masses
the Sub Mode Antarctic water (SAMW)
This kind of water mass is located in the sub-Antarctic area. It formed as a result of mixing of
Antarctic Superficial waters and waters of tropical origin waters. SAMW has surface density of
that ranges between 1026.0 and 1027.0 kg/m3 . .

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 16
Downes (2012), denotes that SAMW has slightly less dissolved oxygen compared to layer of
water surface above it, while it has greater dissolved oxygen then the water masses beneath it.
However it also has variation in its density, salinity and temperature. The water masses act as the
oxygenator in southern Oceans mid. It picks atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide from the
water surface and sinks. Thus it contribute to Indian subtropical Gyre and cooling.
Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW)
AAIW is located at intermediate depth within the Southern Oceans. I tis formed in the Antarctic
convergence zone at the surface of the ocean. The water mass is cold with low salinity content.
AAIW is quite kind of unique water mass in such a sense that it can sink in Ocean despite its low
salinity rate unlike other water masses which contain high salinity. Its temperatures ranges
between 3-7°C while its salinity is ranges between 34.2-34.4 psu. The size of AAIW lies
between 1026.83kg/m³ and 1027.44kg/m³.
Circumpolar Deep Water
This kind of water mass is formed by mixing up of all ocean water including the Antarctic the
list mas of water, North Atlantic Deep Water and Pacific intermediate water masses. It is the
greatest water mass within the southern Oceans. The CDW is a combination of deep water from
almost all oceans. Its upper part is made up of oxygen-poor water also from almost all oceans.
The lower (deeper) branch contains a core of high salinity water from the Atlantic, including
adds from the North Atlantic deep water mixed with salty Mediterranean Sea water. The CDW
can be met from hundreds meters to 3000 meters.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 17
Antarctic Bottom Water
The coldest, saltiest water is made on the continental shelf near Antarctica in winter, mostly from
the shallow Weddell and Ross seas. The cold and salty water is drained from the shelves,
entrains some deep waters, and scatter out along the sea floor; it forms the AABW (STEWART,
s.p.).
This dense water then seeps into all the ocean basins.
Mixing Current
Figure 9: Antarctic schematic hydrology.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 18
As the different water masses circulate around Antarctica, they mix with other water masses with
similar density. In a sense, the ACC is a giant “mix-master” taking water from each ocean,
mixing it with water from other oceans, and then redistributing it backs to each ocean.
In surface layers, the direct effect of the stress of wind, combined with Coriolis force, leads to a
north-ward effect of flow feeding each ocean. Moreover, the ACC meet some continental
obstacles that remove a part of it.(TCHERNIA, p 58)
Figure 10: Water masses mixing
Deep circulation.
Because the ACC extend all the way in the water column, topographic steering
influences it. As the current crosses ridges such as the Kerguelen Plateau, the Pacific-Antarctic
ridge, and the Drake Passage, the ridges deflect it. It explains that Antarctic bottom water, too

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 19
dense to cross through the Drake Passage, is not considered as real circumpolar water. It also
allows redistributing some circumpolar deep water, less dense and thus less deep, in all oceans.
(see figure 9)
Figure 11:Antarctic deep circulation
.
Because it connects the three great ocean basins, allowing exchanges between each ocean, the
ACC is an important factor in world’s climate. It controls it in three ways: By connecting the
world’s oceans, the ACC distributes heat and other properties influencing the patterns of
temperature and rainfall.
Campisano et al. (2016), denotes that the straight upward movement of water, caused by f
freezing of Antarctic during the winter and warming during summer, controls the renewal of
deep water in the world’s oceans. There is an change in gaseous state , for example air and

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 20
carbon dioxide, with the atmosphere at the sea surface. The ocean upholds 49 times extra CO2
compared to the atmosphere, in this case the rate through which the Southern Ocean takes
CO2 can directly affect climate change.
Satellites have detected some differences of more or less 2-3°C in the ACC waters. It forms 2
warm and 2 cold pool, in that each one measuring several thousands of kilometers long and
thousands of meters deep. These regions, resulting from ocean/atmosphere exchanges, move
with the ACC, surrounding the globe in southern latitudes in 8-9 years
This phenomenon has been called the Antarctic Circumpolar Waves and is believed to have a
considerable on influence the weather patterns in southern Australia, South America and
southern Africa.
Question 5
Introduction
ACC is a global current which circulate around the whole earth. It connect three major water
basins which include the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. These oceans are
bordered with continents. According to Talley et al, water reemerge and get back to the ocean
after upwelling, mingling and being moved to both lighter and denser waters. ACC t5herefore
has come to affect some common point among the continents connected to the southern Oceans.
Among the many areas we have the Drake Passage, Kerguelen Plateau in New Zeeland,
Macquarie Plateau, Peninsulas in north America. ACC phenomenon has been called the
Antarctic Circumpolar Waves and is believed to contain a considerate amount of influence the
patterns of weather in southern Australia, South America and southern Africa.
ACC in South America

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The Drake Passage
Drake Passage is the water body found in between South Shetland Island in Antarctica and Cape
Horn in South America. It is joint point where Pacific waters, Atlantic waters and southern sea
waters converge. The Antarctic Circumpolar current at this particular point are so strong (Bijl,
Sluijs & Brinkhuis 2013, p. 29).
The west and east South American coasts send back a part of the current to the north. It
contributes to the Ham bolt current all along Chilean and Peruvian coasts, and it forms the
Falkland current all along Argentine coasts. (Flaim, Healy & Weir 2010, p. 483)
Figure 12: The Drake Passage
ACC in Australia
According to Shultz (2015), according to Blunden (2016), ACC is evident in the land between
Tasmania and Antarctica. Various research have shown that large amount of water pass through
this point at very high speed. For instance the subdivision of research of the Marine and
Antarctic Cooperative Research (CSIRO) , carried in 2006. The observation entails that the mean

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 22
net total flow of water in this channel is 143×106 cu . m/s .The obstacle represented by Australia
and Tasmania also sends back a part of waters to the north. It mixes there with the Australian
current.(see figure 13)
Figure 13: The ACC and Australia.
ACC in Africa
The coast of south Africa is subjected to influence by warm cold and warm ocean currents.
Cape of good hope marks the point of division of the Antarctic circumpolar currents. The
direction of the ACC currents around the south African coast is affected by the continental shelf.
There also exist Agulhas Bank, a region of cape Agulhas which is located at the age of south
African coast .
The peaks current, all along South African coasts, deflect a part of the ACC to the north to form
the Beguiler current. Antarctica is seen as frozen continent surrounded by icy water as per the
view from the satellite. ACC over time has led to very many dynamic within the coastal oceans.
The major change among many other is maintaining the Antarctica region cool and frozen. The

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 23
volume of water being carried by the ACC Averagely range between 165 million to 182 million
cubic meters of water from west to east (van Hansberger 2015,,p. 21).
The water temperature in the oceans rises slowly at the beginning while it resume with a very
sharp gradient. ACC therefore contributes much to the maintaining of steady icy temperature in
the Antarctica by maintaining the boundaries. This is the root cause of formation of ice age in
Antarctica. As the ocean waters of gets cold, the ocean density increases and the water become
more salty.
Figure 14: ACC in Africa
CONCLUSION

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 24
The ACC is the most important and the biggest current all around the world. It links all the
oceans, and mixes all waters to redistribute them in each ocean. Because the ACC extend all the
way in the water column, topographic steering influences it. As the current crosses ridges such as
the Kerguelen Plateau, the Pacific-Antarctic ridge, and the Drake Passage, the ridges deflect it. It
explains that Antarctic bottom water, too dense to cross through the Drake Passage, is not
considered as real circumpolar water. It also allows redistributing some circumpolar deep water,
less dense and thus less deep, in all oceans
The most recent research has shown that the southern edge of ACC as viewed by oceanographers
has clearly indicated the boundary between warm Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans and
Antarctica cold waters. However further research has shown that the boundary is shifting due
adverse factors such as westerly winds and global warming.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 25
List of references
Bijl, P. K., Sluijs, A., & Brinkhuis, H. (2013). A magneto- and chemostratigraphically calibrated
dinoflagellate cyst zonation of the early Palaeogene South Pacific Ocean. Earth-Science
Reviews, 124, 1–31.
Blunden, J. (2016) ‘State of the Climate in 2015’, Bulletin of the American Meteorological
Society, 97(8), pp. S1–S275.
Campisano, C., Arrowsmith, R., Asrat, A., Behrensmeyer, A. K. and Deino, A. (2016) ‘The
Hominin Sites and Paleolakes Drilling Project: inferring the environmental context of human
evolution from eastern African rift lake deposits’, Scientific Drilling, 21, pp. 1–16
Cessi, P., Wolfe, C. L. and Ludka, B. C. (2010) ‘Eastern-Boundary Contribution to the Residual
and Meridional Overturning Circulations’, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 40(9), pp. 2075–
2090.
Downes, S. M., (2012) ‘Tracing Southwest Pacific Bottom Water Using Potential Vorticity and
Helium-3’, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 42(12), pp. 2153–2168.
Flaim, B., Healy, T. and Weir, P. (2010) ‘Establishment of a Dredged Material Disposal Site in
the Exclusive Economic Zone: New Zealand’, Coastal Management, 38(5), pp. 474–500.
Maffre, P., (2018) ‘The influence of orography on modern ocean circulation’, Climate Dynamics,
50(3/4), pp. 1277–1289.
Olbers, D. and Visbeck, M. (2005) ‘A Model of the Zonally Averaged Stratification and
Overturning in the Southern Ocean’, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 35(7), pp. 1190–1205.

Antarctica Circumpolar Current 26
Pradal, M. and Gnanadesikan, A. (2014) ‘How does the Redi parameter for mesoscale mixing
impact global climate in an Earth System Model?’, Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth
Systems, 6(3), pp. 586–601.
Shultz, J., (2015) ‘The 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Trauma Signature of an
Ecological Disaster’, Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 42(1), pp. 58–76.
Small, R., Tomas, R. and Bryan, F. (2014) ‘Storm track response to ocean fronts in a global
high-resolution climate model’, Climate Dynamics, 43(3/4), pp. 805–828.
van Hinsbergen, D. J., (2015) ‘A Paleolatitude Calculator for Paleoclimate Studies’, PLoS ONE,
10(6), pp. 1–21.
Wolfe, C. L. and Cessi, P. (2014) ‘Salt Feedback in the Adiabatic Overturning
Circulation’, Journal of Physical Oceanography, 44(4), pp. 1175–1194.
Yang, S., Galbraith, E. and Palter, J. (2014) ‘Coupled climate impacts of the Drake Passage and
the Panama Seaway’, Climate Dynamics, 43(1/2), pp. 37–52.
Yuan, X., Kaplan, M. R. and Cane, M. A. (2018) ‘The Interconnected Global Climate System—
A Review of Tropical–Polar Teleconnections’, Journal of Climate, 31(15), pp. 5765–5792.