Assessment on Anatomy and Physiology

This report presents a comprehensive assessment on anatomy and physiology, covering various systems including the nervous, respiratory, cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. Each section includes detailed explanations, comparisons, and the physiological functions of these systems, along with relevant tables and figures. The report aims to enhance understanding of human anatomy and physiology, making it a valuable resource for students in healthcare and related fields.

Running Head: ASSESSMENT ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Assessment on Anatomy and Physiology
Student’s Name
Institution
Date

ASSESSMENT ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2
ASSESSMENT TASK # 2 OF # 3 – WORKBOOK B
Part A: Nervous System & Special Senses
Word Limit:50 – 100 words each
Question 1
According to the functional classification, the nervous system is divided into the somatic
(the parts of the nervous system that regulate skeletal muscle functioning) and the
autonomic (vegetative) system, which regulates the work of internal organs. In the
autonomic nervous system, two departments are distinguished: sympathetic and
parasympathetic. Both the somatic and autonomic nervous systems include the central and
peripheral departments.
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the nervous
system
the peripheral
nervous system
somatic (body
moving muscles)
autonomic(intern
al senses)
the central
nervous system
brain and spinal
cord

ASSESSMENT ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 3
Question 2
Compare and contrast the structure and function of the autonomic and somatic nervous
systems in the below table.
Table 1 – Comparison of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system
Sensory input
From somatic senses and
special senses
Mainly from interceptors; some
from somatic senses and
special senses
Control of motor
output
Voluntary control in response
to basal ganglia, cerebellum,
brain stem and spinal cord
Limited control from cerebral
cortex
Motor neuron
pathway
One neuron pathway Usually two neuron pathway:
Neurotransmitters
and hormones
Release only acetylcholine
(Ach).
All sympathetic and
parasympathetic preganglionic
neurons release Acetylcholine
(ACh
Effectors Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
and glands
Responses
Contraction of skeletal
muscle
Contraction or relaxation of
smooth muscle
Question 3
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Table 2– classification of sensory receptors
Receptor type Receptor Location and Activating Stimulus
Exteroceptors External body such as skin and is activated by
environmental factors
Interoceptors Carried in blood vessels and visceral organs and
is activated by changing blood composition
Proprioceptors Muscles, joints, tendons and inner ear
Receptor type Types Of Stimulus Detected
Thermoreceptors Temperature
Mechanoreceptors Pressure and touch
Photoreceptors Detect light
Osmoreceptors Detect change in osmotic pressure
Chemoreceptors Detect taste stimuli especially in the mouth
Nociceptors Detect pain
Question 4
Rhodopsin, a sensitive molecule in the photoreceptors is quickly bleached making some of
rods nonfunctional in high light intensity places. This allows the cones to take over. In the
darkness, rods quickly regenerate Rhodopsin and the retina continues to respond to light
stimuli.
Question 5
The cerebellum works in conjunctions with the vestibular system to modulate the motor
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pathways that control balance and gaze. The vestibular input is important since it sends
signals to the neural structures that control eye movements and to the muscles that help an
animal to keep an upright posture (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2010) (52 words)
Question 6
The signs and symptoms of otitis media include: irritability of the ears, fussiness, pain or
ear fullness, fever, build-up of pus within the ear, rupturing of eardrum causing pus to drain
from middle ear into the ear canal, hole in the eardrum, inflammation of ears, headache,
and difficulty in sleeping (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2010) (50 words)
Part B: Respiratory System
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
Respiratory tracts include: nasal passages, oral cavity, larynx, trachea, which is divided
into 2 main bronchi, each of which in turn is also successively and repeatedly
dichotomously divided. Some of its parts are located in the mouth but the basic units are
found inside the lungs.
Upper respiratory tract, trachea and bronchi are referred to the conductive zone. Bronchi
17-19th order is called respiratory bronchioles, since on their walls alveoli already appear,
and their zone is called transitional. Respiratory bronchioles of the 20-23th order are called
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the respiratory zone, mainly gas exchange takes place in this zone (Marshall Cavendish
Corporation 2010) (100 words)
Question 2
During exercise, in various departments of the central nervous system, a functional system
of nerve centers is created, which ensures the fulfillment of the intended goal of action.
In the mobilization of the body's functions and their reserves, the role of the sympathetic
nervous system, the release of pituitary hormones and adrenal glands, and neuropeptides
are significant. The heart but the vascular system, participating in the delivery of oxygen to
working tissues, undergoes noticeable working changes. Increased systolic blood volume
(for large loads in athletes to 150-200 mL), increases the heart rate (92 words)
Question 3
The main flow of tobacco smoke contains over 400 gaseous ingredients. Many of them
( acrolein, ammonia, cyanobic acid, nitrogen oxides, acetone, acetaldehyde, formic acid ,
etc.) have a ciliatoxic effect, manifested by damage to the ciliary epithelium of the
respiratory tract. When smoking 15 cigarettes a day, the ciliary epithelium ciliary activity
ceases, as a result of which mucociliary clearance is disrupted and the mucous membrane
of the respiratory tract is rapidly infected with a bacterial flora. Prolonged exposure to
tobacco smoke leads to metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium, morphological and
functional changes in the Clara cells. (99 words)
Question 4
Bronchial asthma is a serious disease that prevents normal breathing. because of
inflammation, swelling and the formation of phlegm narrowing the airways leading to the
lungs. Asthma can have varying degrees of severity and frequency of exacerbations.
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Symptoms of asthma can be different: from small difficulty breathing, wheezing and
coughing to shortness of breath, chest tightness and suffocation (Marshall Cavendish
Corporation 2010) (58 words)
Part C: Cardiovascular System
Word Limit: Given at end of question where required.
Question 1
Label the chambers of the heart and draw in the directions of blood flow.
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ASSESSMENT ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 8
Question 2
Arteries have three-layered dense, smooth and elastic walls. The structure of the walls
allows the arteries to withstand a great deal of pressure, under which blood is ejected from
the heart. The walls of the capillaries are very thin: they consist of a single layer of flat
cells
The walls of the veins are thinner and not so elastic as the walls of the arteries (because the
blood pressure in them is small), although they have the same three layers. Large veins
have internal valves that allow blood to flow only towards the heart (Norris & Siegfried,
2011) (94 words)
Question 3
A typical symptom for hypertension is a headache - a severity in the nape of the neck,
which sometimes appears in the morning, often accompanied by flickering before the eyes,
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Aorta
Pulmonary valve
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Inferior vene
cava
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
Left atrium
atrioventricular
Left ventricle
Interventricular
septum
Enter text here.
Semilunar valve

ASSESSMENT ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 9
dizziness, and sometimes nausea. The blood pressure is also very high. Among the
measures for the prevention and treatment of the disease, the leading place among which,
undoubtedly, is given to massage.
Skilful massage does not only relieve the patient, for example, from a headache, which is
the most common symptom of both hypertension and hypotension, but also normalizes
blood pressure. (91 words)
Question 4
Anemia is a condition associated with a decreased content of hemoglobin and red blood
cells in the blood. Iron deficiency anemia is one of the most common types of this disease.
It is associated with a lack of iron in the human body. The lack of iron in the body can be
associated with malnutrition and the lack of trace elements in food. This is often found in
children and adolescents, especially in girls during puberty.
Megaloblastic anemia can occur due to a lack of vitamin B12 and folic acid. Pernicious
anemia on the other hand occur due to lack of vitamin B 12 (104 words)
Question 5
Table 3: Comparison Between Iron Deficiency Anaemia And Sickle Cell
Anaemia
Feature
Iron Deficiency
Anaemia
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Aetiology Nutritional deficiency in
iron, absorption
problems of iron or
excessive excretion of
Genetic mutation to
haemoglobin
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iron
Prevalence/Distribution According to WHO
estimates, anemia is
diagnosed in 1.62-2
billion people in the
world, 50% of them have
an iron deficiency
Prevalence varies from
one country or continent
to the other. For
example, In England,
sickle cell anemia affects
more than 1 live births in
2000
Signs/Symptoms dizziness, fatigue, or
light-headedness, brittle
nails,palpitations
Affected children
develop early hemolytic
anemia, and in
connection with this
there is a delay in
physical and mental
development.
Characteristic violations
of the development of
the skeleton: tower skull,
thickening of the frontal
suture of the skull in the
form of a comb,
Treatment Treating underlying
disease or consuming
For the purpose of rapid
relief of acute conditions,
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food rich in iron oxygen therapy, infusion
dehydration,
administration of
antibiotics, analgesics,
anticoagulants and
disaggregants, folic acid
are prescribed
Question 6
Table 4: Role of nutrition in anaemia
Nutritional deficiency Causes
Iron-deficiency anaemia Inadequate iron Inadequate absorption of
iron, excessive loss of
iron, increased iron
requirement, insufficient
iron intake results in
inadequate haemoglobin
production
Megaloblastic anaemia Lack of folic acid;
Vitamin B12 deficiency
Lack of folic acid;
Vitamin B12 deficiency
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Pernicious anaemia B12-deficiency Develops with
insufficient endogenous
intake or assimilation of
vitamin B12 in the body.
Associated with two
groups of factors:
nutritional and
endogenous. Alimentary
reasons are caused by
insufficient intake of
vitamin B12 with food.
This can occur during
starvation, vegetarianism
and diets with the
exception of animal
protein.
Part D: Lymphatic System and Immunity, Inflammation and Infection
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Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
The lymphatic system is part of the vascular system that complements the venous system
and is involved in the metabolism. Its important function is the purification of cells and
tissues, the removal of foreign bodies from the circulatory system. Closely interacting with
the circulatory system, it is an auxiliary service for transportation, removal and processing
of waste. Small vessels that collect lymph from all parts of the body merge into larger and
larger ones, and finally, from the two main lymph vessels, lymph is fed into the blood
through the veins located at the base of the neck (98 words)
Question 2
Closely interacting with the circulatory system and supplementing it, the lymphatic is
completely autonomous. These systems also work in different ways. For example, lymph
circulates much more slowly in the body than blood. In the movement of lymph leads to
muscle contractions, which are lymphatic vessels. This is facilitated by the difference in
the concentration of substances dissolved in lymph and blood, and the reverse flow of
lymph does not allow valves similar to venous ones. (76 words)
Question 3
Bacteria and viruses are microscopic organisms that can cause disease, both in humans,
and in animals or plants. Although bacteria and viruses may have some common
characteristics, they are also very different. Bacteria are usually much larger than viruses,
and they can be examined with a conventional microscope. Viruses are about 1000 times
smaller than bacteria and are visible only under an electron microscope. Bacteria are
unicellular organisms that multiply independently of other organisms. Viruses need the
help of a living cell to play (84 words)
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Question 4
Nonspecific immunity includes a set of protective factors of the organism that exist in it,
regardless of whether the body meets the "stranger" or not. The concept of "alien" includes
foreign molecules (mostly large), microorganisms that try to enter the body without his
consent. The body can allow some microorganisms to live in the intestine, oral cavity ...
and other places communicating with the external environment (if only they did not
interfere, or even better: they helped). Adaptive are those immunity that are formed after an
entrance of pathogens. For example, common cold is often associated with acquired
immune responses. (100 words)
Question 5
Hypersensitivity to drugs is an immune-mediated response. Symptoms range from mild to
severe and include skin rash, anaphylaxis and serum sickness. The diagnosis is made
clinically; informative are skin tests. Treatment consists in stopping the medication,
prescribing antihistamines (according to indications) and sometimes desensitization. Most
drugs play the role of haptens, which covalently bind to serum or cellular proteins,
including proteins that make up the molecules of the main histocompatibility complex
(MHC). Such binding makes these proteins immunogenic by stimulating the production of
antibodies against drugs (86 words).
Question 6
Most often the allergy looks like a urticaria - it appears suddenly and can last from several
hours to several days. The appearance of hives looks like pale red swelling, localized in
separate areas or throughout the body. If hives are accompanied by symptoms such as
fever, abdominal pain and diarrhea, you should immediately consult a doctor. If a skin
allergic reaction has occurred in certain areas of the body that have come into contact with
the allergen, then it is a contact dermatitis, most often caused by metals, cosmetics,
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household chemicals. Unlike urticaria, which occurs almost immediately after contact with
the allergen, contact dermatitis often does not appear immediately - sensitivity to the
allergen develops within a few weeks and the reaction manifests itself only at the next
contact (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2010) (98 words).
Part E: Endocrine System
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
Table 5: Comparison of control by the nervous and endocrine systems
Characteristics Nervous system Endocrine system
Release and transport of
messenger molecules
Neurotransmitters released
locally in response to
nerve impulses
Hormones released to the
blood stream and delivered
throughout the body
Site of action Defined place Tissues and organs with
receptors targeted
Types of target cells Specific cells. The signal Spreads with the blood flow
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on the nerve fiber comes
to a strictly defined place,
to a particular muscle, or
to another nerve center, or
to the gland.
throughout the body.
Whether or not tissues and
organs respond to this signal
depends on the presence in
the cells of these tissues of
the receptor - the molecular
receptors
Time to onset of action Very fast and brief. As a
rule, the volley of
impulses caused by the
stimulus lasts no more
than a fraction of a second.
This is the so-called
inclusion reaction .
Performs slow tonic
regulation, that is, it has a
permanent effect on the
organs, maintaining their
function in a certain state.
The level of the hormone
can remain elevated all the
time the stimulus acts, and
in some conditions - up to
several months.
Duration of action The nerve signal is fast, it
moves to another organ,
ie, to another nerve cell,
muscle cell or gland cell at
a speed of 7 to 140 m / s,
delayed by switching to
the synapses by only one
millisecond. Thanks to
The greatest effect of the
hormone can be observed in
a few hours after a single
exposure to the body. Thus,
the humoral signal is slow.
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nervous regulation, we can
do something "in the blink
of an eye".
Question 2
The synergistic action of hormones is a similar biological effect of their action. Both
adrenaline and glucagon increase the glucose level in the blood. Unlike synergism,
permissive action is that one hormone in itself does not have a biological effect, but
enhances the action of another hormone. The antagonism of hormones manifests itself in
the opposite biological effect. Various mechanisms of antagonistic manifestations are
possible. Glucocorticoid cortisol weakens the transport of glucose into adipose tissue, and
insulin - increases. In this case, two hormones act each through their receptors. (89 words)
Question 3
a). Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid hormone of the adrenal cortex. Almost all
aldosterone is in the blood in free form. Its effect is manifested only after binding to the
mineralocorticoid receptors in the brain and in the liver. Metabolised in the liver and in the
kidneys. It causes an increase in the reabsorption of sodium and chlorine in the renal
tubules, activating amyloride-sensitive sodium channels and Na-K-ATPase. As a result,
sodium and chlorine retention in the body is observed, a decrease in the release of fluid in
the urine, in parallel, there is an increase in the excretion of potassium (Templin, 2011).
(100 words)
b). When aldosterone is applied to the renal tubules, the reabsorption of Na + ions
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increases , followed by water moving water . As a result, the pressure in the circulatory
system is restored and the concentration of sodium ions increases in the blood plasma and,
hence, in the primary urine, which reduces the activity of the RAAS (57 words)
Part F: Digestive System
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
a).
Large papillae at the base of the tongue contain up to 500 gustatory bulbs each, small - on
the front and side surfaces of the tongue - a few bulbs, and only a few thousand gustatory
bulbs. There are four types of papillae, differing in localization and form: mushroom-
shaped on the tip of the tongue, leaf-shaped on the lateral surface, grooves on the front of
the tongue and threadlike, containing receptors, are sensitive not to taste, but only to
temperature and mechanical action. (80 words)
b).
Secretory - provides the production of digestive juices containing enzymes. Salivary glands
produce saliva, which is used for digestion of starch, gastric glands - gastric juice, which is
used for breakdown of complex food, pancreas - pancreatic juice, liver - bile, intestinal
glands - intestinal juice. Enzymes of digestive juices have a great specificity - each enzyme
acts on a certain chemical compound. There are three main groups of digestive enzymes:
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proteases that break down proteins to amino acids; Lipases that break down fats to glycerol
and fatty acids; amylases that break down carbohydrates to monosaccharides (96 words)
c).
The absorption of water begins in the stomach, but most intensively it occurs in the thin
and especially large intestine. Absorption of carbohydrates occurs mainly in the small
intestine. Absorption of various fats depends on their emulsification and hydrolysis and is
most active in the duodenum and the proximal part of the jejunum. Absorption of products
of hydrolysis of proteins. Proteins are absorbed mainly in the intestine after hydrolysis to
amino acids. Absorption of various amino acids occurs with unequal speed in different
parts of the small intestine. (88 words)
Question 2
Despite the fact that our teeth and gums are created by nature to withstand a colossal
masticatory load, they are very vulnerable to the daily effects of the food we eat. After
eating, its particles remain in the tongue, gums and teeth. Bacteria that are in the mouth,
which also likes to eat. Accumulations of food, bacteria and products of their vital activity
- this is the soft plaque arising on the teeth. Age also makes teeth vulnerable to edentulism
(80 words)
Question 3
The immune system of the mucous membranes is part of the overall immune system of the
body and at the same time is characterized by a certain autonomy. Its main task is to
provide an effective protective barrier on the border of contact of the environment,
abounding with various antigens, both alive (viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc.) and
inanimate ones (toxins, poisons, food antigens, etc.) and the internal environment of the
body, which retains a relative constancy (76 words)
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Question 4
The body convert the different types of macronutrients to energy through the oxidation of
the main food components in mitochondria in presence of oxygen. The process releases
ATP and water. The process of converting different types of macronutrients varies. First,
these macronutrients must be broken down into smallest particles before oxidation takes
place (86 words).
Question 5
Symptoms of PKU in children include the delay of psycho-motor development begins. The
child with phenylketonuria later begins to hold the head, take toys, sit, stand, walk. These
children have teeth erupting late, problems with speech. With mild disease, a child's speech
can develop from 3 years. Skin in patients with phenylketonuria is white, tender and
sensitive to sunlight and trauma. Often there is eczema and dermatitis. Treatment of
phenylketonuria through nutrition includes a refusal or very limited consumption of
products such as fish, meat, bakery products, sausages, cottage cheese, eggs, chocolate,
legumes, nuts and cereals (96 words).
Question 6
" Intolerance " means the inability to digest lactose, often associated with a deficiency of
the enzyme lactase. Approximately 30 minutes after consuming milk or dairy products
such as ice cream or cottage cheese and homemade cheese, people with lactose intolerance
may have diarrhea (diarrhea) or cramping pains (abdominal cramps) and bloating
(increased gas production in the intestine), the severity of which depends on the level of
lack of enzymes (69 words).
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Part G: Urinary System
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
The urinary system of man is represented by the kidneys, ureters, urethra and bladder.
They are located in lower abdomen and pelvis region. The main functions of the system
are: Isolation of metabolic products; Maintaining water-salt balance in the body; Hormonal
function due to biologically active substances synthesized by the adrenal glands (52 words)
Question 2
The structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron - a set of glomeruli and
outgoing tubules. Kidney has a function of regulation of the ionic and acid-base
equilibrium. It also has functions to remove water and water-soluble substances (end
products of metabolism) from the body. Kidney also participate in the processes of
intermediate metabolism. Kidney also produces some hormones (Patton, Thibodeau &
Anthony, 2010). (62 words).
Question 3
Defense system is designed to prevent the bacteria from entering the urethra and causing
infections. The system is also designed to protect the other parts of urinary system.
Question 4
Key symptom of urinary tract infection include pain during urination, itching sensation on
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the penis or the vulva, emergence of pus from urethra.
Part H: Reproductive System and Pregnancy
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
Table 6: Comparison of the role of anterior pituitary hormones in male and female
reproductive systems
Hormone
Male Reproductive
System
Female Reproductive
System
Lutenising hormone (LH)
Effect: Stimulates the production
and secretion of
Testosterone
Stimulates the synthesis of
estrogens, regulates the
secretion of progesterone
and the formation of a
yellow body (Arnould-
Taylor, n.d.).
Acts on which cell type Leydig (Interstitial) cells
in the testes
granulosa cells of the
ovarian follicles and corpora
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lutea.
Negative feedback via: Plasma testosterone level the concentration of
estrogens
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Effect: growth of testes;
growth of seminiferous
tubules
growth of follicles on the
ovaries;
synthesis of estrogens.
Acts on which cell type Interstitial granulosa cells of the
ovarian follicles and corpora
lutea.
Negative feedback via: Testosterone level estrogen level
Question 2
In the I phase of the menstrual cycle, the body is under the influence of estrogens, and in II
(from ovulation to the onset of menstruation), progesterone, secreted by the cells of the
yellow body, joins estrogens. The first phase of the menstrual cycle is also called follicular,
or follicular, the second phase of the cycle is luteal. During the menstrual cycle, two peaks
of estradiol are noted in the peripheral blood: the first is an expressed preovulatory cycle,
and the second, less pronounced, in the middle of the second phase of the menstrual cycle
(96 words).
Question 3
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Table 7: Development of organ systems during embryonic development
Organ system
Development begins
in gestational week:
Dermal layer origin
Nervous System Week 3 Ectoderm
Cardiovascular System
Heart
Blood vessels
cardio - vascular
system starts at the
third week and mostly
completed by the
eighth week of life
Ectoderm
Ears 18th week ectoderm
Eyes On the eleventh week
of intrauterine
development
ectoderm
Integumentary system 20 weeks, Ectoderm
Nail the thirty-fourth week
of pregnancy
Ectoderm
Skeletal System:
Skull
Vertebrae and ribs
Limb buds
Free upper and lower limbs
ninth week Ectoderm
Muscular system 15th week Ectoderm
Respiratory System third week of Endoderm
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pregnancy
Digestive System fifth week the Endoderm
Urinary System 15th week of
intrauterine
development
Endoderm
Question 4
Carcinogens - chemicals, radiation, capable of entering the human body or animals lead to
the formation of malignant neoplasms (tumors). They include nitrates, benzopyrenes,
peroxides, aflatoxins and dioxins. Teratogenes are chemical substances or physical factors
that cause the appearance of deformities and other developmental anomalies upon exposure
to the body. the basis of teratogenesis can lie almost all known mechanisms of toxic effects
of xenobiotics. They include nicotine, alcohol, drugs (70)
Question 5
The prostate in men is deep in the pelvis under the bladder between the pubic bone and
rectum. The prostate gland, as it were, connects the organs of the sexual and urinary system
of a man. On one side is the bladder, which is a reservoir for urine, on the other hand - the
urethra , which carries both urine and sperm from the outside to the outside. (67)
Question 6
The reduction of both male and female "tone" is an evolutionary device that is designed to
protect the gene pool of mankind from the spread of "poor quality" gene material that both
sexes begin to produce as the body ages. Consequently, with aging, prostrate gland loses its
tone and become less effective (51)
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Question 7
The pressure of the prostate on the urethra causes an interrupted or weak flow of urine
Because the urethra passes through the center of the prostate and the prostate tissue grows
inside the gland in the adenoma (see picture), there is a possibility that the urethra can be
completely or partially clamped, there are complaints associated with urination.
Complaints occur only when the prostate increases so much that the muscles of the bladder
are no longer able to push urine through the narrowed urethra (84).
Part I: Basic Pharmacology and Iatrogenics
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
Pharmacodynamics include types of pharmacological action of drugs (local, resorptive,
direct and indirect, reflex, reversible, irreversible, preferential, selective, specific action). It
also includes typical mechanisms of action of medicinal substances (mimetic, lytic,
allosteric, changing the permeability of membranes, releasing the metabolite from binding
to proteins, etc.). On the other hand, pharmacokinetics entails the study of the processes of
absorption, distribution, binding with proteins, biotransformation and excretion of
medicinal substances (69)
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Question 2
A: absorption, the process of getting the drug into the body
D: distribution (from English distribution), route of preparation in the body
M: metabolism, chemical modification of the preparation by the body
E: elimination (from English excretion), the process of getting rid of the body of the drug
(50)
Question 3
The distribution of drugs is the distribution of medicinal substances to organs and tissues
after they have entered the systemic circulation. Depends mainly on the nature of the drug,
the intensity of blood flow in tissues, the permeability of histohematological barriers, and
the binding of drug molecules to plasma proteins and tissues (52).
Question 4
It refers to deterioration of the physical or emotional state of a person involuntarily
provoked by a medical worker. Usually refers to the influence of imprudent statements of a
doctor. Initially, latrogenic meant mainly psychological influence on the patient. After the
words or actions of doctors, the patient develops a distorted image of his condition (internal
picture of the disease), which then negatively affects the state of his psyche and health.
Question 5
Table 8– Common medications and Contraindications
Medication Cautions/Contraindications
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Aspirin Hypersensitivity to salicylates or NSAIDs; hemophilia,
bleeding ulcers or hemorrhagic states.
Zoloft known hypersensitivity to sertraline;
simultaneous use of MAO inhibitors and pimozide
Nexium hypersensitivity to esomeprazole, substituted benzimidazoles
or other ingredients in the formulation
Valium (Diazepam) Contraindications during pregnancy
Digoxin contraindicated in unstable angina, glycoside intoxication,
cardiac tamponade, heart rhythm disturbances (ventricular
fibrillation, severe bradycardia
Warfarin Hypersensitivity, acute bleeding, severe hepatic or renal
disease, severe hypertension
Lipitor Hypersensitivity to Lipitor components, active liver diseases
(including active chronic hepatitis, chronic alcoholic
hepatitis), increased activity of "hepatic" transaminases
Ibuprofen Ibuprofen can not be used for allergies to ibuprofen,
intolerance to auxiliary components, aspirin asthma,
significant allergic reactions in the past (Quincke's edema,
urticaria, bronchial asthma) after taking NSAIDs (Clark,
2005).
Metformin hypersensitivity to metformin and other biguanides; diabetic
ketoacidosis, diabetic precoma and coma; chronic renal failure
Thyroxine It is not applied in the presence of untreated thyrotoxicosis,
heart rhythm disorders, pericarditis, myocarditis, ischemia,
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angina pectoris, coronary insufficiency, atherosclerosis, acute
infarction, severe hypertension, adrenal insufficiency (Jones,
2017).
Question 6
Table 9 – Common procedures and Contraindications
Procedure Cautions/Contraindications/side effects
Gastroscopy Adverse reactions to medications given during the procedure.
Bleeding and tearing can occur if polyps are removed or if a
biopsy is performed.
Tonsillectomy Bleeding. The reason - violations in the blood clotting system.
Avoid timely detection before the operation.
Infection. It arises because of the spread of pathogens along
with lymph and blood throughout the body. It is often
observed in people with initially reduced immunity.
Knee arthroplasty Sometimes, after endoprosthetics, the patient has anxious
symptoms. He has a fever , severe pain, swelling , knee-bend
and other unpleasant effects .
Colonoscopy The most serious are intestinal perforation and bleeding in the
region of the distant polyp. Penetrating into the abdominal
cavity, feces provoke the development of an acute
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inflammatory process
Angiogram Contraindications include Cancerous growth, heart attack,
angioma and hematoma
Caesarean section This is associated with appearance of adhesions. Most women
after caesarean section diagnose spikes, which can cause
unpleasant or painful sensations.
Appendectomy Major side effects are DICO sulking throat due to intubation
and a scraper of one thousand shekels
Part J: Causes of Disease and Metabolism
Word Limit: 50 – 100 words each
Question 1
Viruses and bacteria can both be pathogenic. List some key features associated with viruses
and bacteria and give an example of a disease caused by each. contain a nucleic acid: either
DNA or RNA, surrounded from the outside by protein molecules that create the envelope
of the virus. Some viruses have one more - external, or secondary, shell; more complex
viruses contain a number of enzymes. Viruses cause many human diseases: measles,
mumps, flu, poliomyelitis, rabies, smallpox, yellow fever, trachoma, encephalitis, certain
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oncological (tumor) diseases, AIDS.
Bacteria are microscopically small organisms that do not have a core bounded by a shell.
Several morphological groups of these bacteria are distinguished according to the shape
and characteristics of cell division. They cause diseases such as cholera
Question 2
Diseases are not always caused by a pathogen; sometimes they can be genetically inherited.
Research three (3) different diseases that can be genetically inherited and discuss how they
impact the patient physically, mentally and emotionally.
One of the genetically inherited diseases is galactosemia, in which the process of
transformation of galactose into glucose is disrupted. The disease manifests itself as
diarrhea, vomiting from the first days of the child's life, persistent jaundice, cataracts, and
retardation of mental and physical development.
With the inherited violation of fat metabolism, the idiocy of Thea-Sachs is associated,
which is characterized by a progressive decline in vision, intelligence combined with other
neurological symptoms.
Down's disease is characterized by a peculiar appearance of patients; irregular shape of the
skull, oblique incision of the eyes, small ears, a disproportion of the trunk and extremities,
fingers short, the little finger shortened and twisted, muscle tone reduced. Many patients
experience heart disease, a dysfunction of the glands of internal secretion, a lag in mental
development.
Question 3
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Causes Disease/Conditions
Trauma Fracture, Burn,
Toxin Foetal alcohol syndrome, Botulism, concussion
Environmental Heatstroke, hypothermia, mesothelioma
Nutritional Anemia, scurvy
Question 4
Table 11: Degenerative changes in organ systems
Organ system
Associated Physical,
Mental and/or Emotional
changes
Examples of associated
Disease/conditions
Nervous System Plaque formation, memory
loss, agitation
Alzheimer’s disease
Cardiovascular System Narrowing of the blood
vessels, memory loss and
confusion
Heart attack
Endocrine System increased excitability of the
myocardium, its
hypertrophy and even
degeneration.
Thyroidism
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Immune System Risk of infections, poor
coordination and low
moods
Autoinflammation
Integumentary system Skin cracking, dermatitis, Dermatitis and wounds
Urinary System Pain during urination, low
moods
Urethritis
Skeletal System Difficult in locomotion,
low moods
Osteoporosis
Muscular system General weakness, low
moods
Respiratory System Difficulty in breathing,
poor memory
Asthma
Digestive System Vomiting and diarrhea,
lack of comfortability
Diarrhea
Urinary System Pain during urination, low
moods
urethritis
Question 5
a)
Protective-adaptive mechanisms of a metabolic-functional character- These mechanisms
can be attributed to the mechanisms of urgent compensation, the effect of most of them is
relatively fast, they are a kind of "first line of defense".
Protective-adaptive mechanisms of a morphological nature- regeneration, hypertrophy and
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hyperplasia. They are formed with prolonged or periodic exposure to the pathogenic factor
and provide long-term adaptation of cells due to regeneration, hypertrophy and hyperplasia.
b)
Identify which of those cellular adaptations is specifically related to the uncontrolled
growth of cancer cells.
Protective-adaptive mechanisms of a morphological nature- regeneration, hypertrophy and
hyperplasia. They are formed with prolonged or periodic exposure to the pathogenic factor
and provide long-term adaptation of cells due to regeneration, hypertrophy
Question 6
Bleeding gums/scurvy
Ulcers and inflammations in the oral cavity (stomatitis)
Question 7
Metabolism is responsible for all the chemical processes that constantly occur in the body
and for which energy is required. Some people have a higher basal metabolic rate than
others, for a variety of reasons. This means that they spend more "fuel" and in a state of rest
burn more calories. "And contrary to popular belief, total people have a higher metabolic
rate than lean ones. The more body weight, the more energy the body needs. Basal
metabolic rate is rate of metabolism when the body is at rest (89)
Questions 8
Anabolism leads to the creation of new cells, the growth of all tissues, an increase in
muscle mass , an increase in the mineralization of bones. Monomers are used to build
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complex polymer compounds in the course of anabolic processes. The most typical
examples of monomers are amino acids , and the most frequent polymer molecules are
proteins. The goal of catabolism is to provide the energy of the human body both at the
cellular level and for performing various movements. Catabolic reactions occur with the
destruction of polymers on individual monomers. Examples of such reactions are: proteins
break down into amino acids
Question 9
Hypothalamus
Question 10
Table 12 – Thyroid disorders
Causes Nutrition / Lifestyle factors
Hypothyroidism
Underactivity of the thyroid
gland
Iodine, Avoid intake of cruciferous
vegetables
Hyperthyroidism
Overactivity of the thyroid
gland
Minimize iodine intake
Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis
Genes, increased level of
iodine
Minimize iodine
Graves disease hyperthyroidism Minimize intake of iodine
Thyroid cancer
a family history of goiter,
exposure to high levels of
radiation, and certain
Exposure to radiation
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hereditary syndromes
Question 11
Any symptoms of thyroid damage are caused either by changes in its structure, which
affects the production of hormones, or by functional abnormalities, including the influence
of the pituitary gland as the central regulatory organ. The thyroid gland can change its
activity in two key ways: hyperthyroidism, a state with increased production of hormones,
respectively, affecting the activation of metabolic processes. hypothyroidism, suppression
of hormone production, which leads to inhibition of metabolic processes (Marieb & Hoehn
2016).
Question 12
Mechanisms of puberty are associated primarily with the restructuring of the central
regulation of the body. Primary processes of this restructuring occur in the hypothalamus,
which activates the secretion of the pituitary gland, and through it - the activity of gonadal-
adrenal systems. However, in the question of what determines the activation of the
hypothalamus itself, there is no complete clarity.
Part K: Responsibility of Members in a care team and Physical Health Status
Question 1
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Normal blood pressure means = 120/80
Prehypertension = 120-139/80-89
The high blood pressure grade 1 = 140-159 / 90-99
The high blood pressure grade 2 = 160 or higher/ 100 or higher
The patient is in category of high blood pressure grade 1
Question 2
BMI = 102KG/1.762
BMI = 102/3.0976
BMI = 32.9
a) Based on your calculations is his BMI within normal health limits?
No the BMI is outside the normal health limits
Question 3
Normally, if the girth of your waist exceeds the norm (more than 94 cm in men and more
than 80 cm in women), then you are at risk for diseases of the cardiovascular system and
type 2 diabetes. John’s waist is 110cm and this shows that he is at risk for diseases of the
cardiovascular system and type 2 diabetes.
Question 4
Consumption of high caloric food and junk food are some of nutritional factors that could
be contributing to the issue. Lifestyles such as low physical load, frequent TV viewing and
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computer use are responsible for patient’s abnormal health status. At present, a person of
working age spends an average of 400-1200 calories per day on physical activities.
Question 5
The risk factors associated with overweight and obesity include obesity in parents,
socioeconomic status, physical activity and diet. Potential risk factors are the behavior of
children and parents, in addition to temperament. The risk of cardiovascular disease,
hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy increases markedly; all this can favor the
development of serious health problems in adulthood (heart disease, heart failure, heart
attacks, thrombosis or circulation problems in the lower limbs)
Question 6
When the patient start developing complications. Some of the complications include
metabolic abnormalities (dyslipidemias, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance), high blood
pressure, alterations in the respiratory, gastrointestinal system and in the locomotor system.
Question 7
Scenario 7.1
Complementary therapies are not a substitute for professional medical care, but they are
recommended because they can supplement your treatment, relieve many symptoms, and
improve your general health and well-being. Yoga, massage, acupuncture, and
aromatherapy are some of the treatments that can help you relax, control stress and anxiety,
and relieve your pain and discomfort. A homeopath or naturopath can also soothe your
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