Psychology: Exploring Associative Learning, Imitation, and Theories

This essay delves into the concept of associative learning, a fundamental aspect of psychology, exploring how humans acquire information and modify behavior. It examines two primary forms: classical conditioning, pioneered by Pavlov, which focuses on learning through association of stimuli, ...Read More

Running head: PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
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Associative learning deals with how human beings learn (acquire information) and behave
(action for the acquired information), thus an important subject in Psychological fields. The
models in the associative learning proved to be appropriate for human learning both theoretically
and practically. Associative learning specialized in two fields instrumental and classical
conditioning1. Classical conditioning deals with the fact that how mental demonstration of
various stimuli are connected. The instrumental conditioning mainly deals with the response
outcome relationships. It is easier to identify the trends of the classical conditioning by two
structures namely, the operation in the learning methods and the criteria by which the stimuli can
be displayed by learning system2. Associative learning faces many issues like the absence of
satisfactorily accounts in all method that are under study, some models namely, Pearce and
Hall’s and Mackintosh’s predict alternate fluctuations are observed, there are also many
phenomenon which are waiting for the appropriate model to be dealt with. There are also some
analogue models of the associative learning and they are referred as computational models. The
underlying perception are ANN’s structure by the analogy neutral networks and psychological
methods.
Classical conditioning is the process of learning by the association. It was established by
a Russian physiologist Pavlov. It is observed when the conditioned Stimulus (CS) is coupled
with unconditioned stimulus (US)3. Mainly, the conditioned stimulus is the neutral stimulus and
1 Loftus, Geoffrey R., and Elizabeth F. Loftus. Human memory: The processing of information.
Psychology Press, 2019.
2 Catmur, Caroline, and Cecilia Heyes. "Mirroring ‘meaningful’actions: Sensorimotor learning
modulates imitation of goal-directed actions." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
72.2 (2019): 322-334.
3 Ahmed, Ola, and Peter F. Lovibond. "Rule-based processes in generalisation and peak shift in
human fear conditioning." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72.2 (2019): 118-131.

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the unconditioned stimulus is the biological potent. Classical conditioning is different from
instrumental conditioning as it deals with modification of the behaviors by the association of
stimuli but in case of instrumental conditioning behaviors can be modified through the impact
that they generate. Pavlov designed this theory by an experiment. In this experiment Pavlov
initially placed a food (US) in front of dog (CS) and then he observed that dog salivate. In the
next phase Pavlov rang a bell and then found that the dog does not salivate. In the next phase,
Pavlov placed the food and then rang the bell, suddenly he found that dog again salivates. In last
phase of the experiment Pavlov simply rang the bell and detected that dog started salivating
without any food. The forward conditioning contains two basic types of conditioning namely,
Delay conditioning as well as trace conditioning. In the case of delay conditioning, the CS
preceded representation of US however, in case of trace conditioning the CS do not intersect
with US4.
Instrumental conditioning also known as operant conditioning is the process of learning
by various reinforcements and punishments. For example, when a person touches a hot pan he or
she immediately removes his or her hand and thus, for the next time he will not touch any hot
pan after that incident. It was discovered by B.F. Skinner. Instrumental learning plays an
important role in day to day learning. The basic element of operant learning are reinforcement
and punishment5. The reinforcement increases the behavior and the punishments decreases the
behavior. Behaviors can be divided in two different types like Operant and respondent behaviors.
4 Gilmartin, Marieke R., Janine L. Kwapis, and Fred J. Helmstetter. "NR2A-and NR2B-
containing NMDA receptors in the prelimbic medial prefrontal cortex differentially mediate
trace, delay, and contextual fear conditioning." Learning & memory 20.6 (2013): 290-294.
5 McLeod, Saul. "Skinner-operant conditioning." Retrieved from (2015).

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Respondent behaviors are the behaviors which occur automatically and the operant behaviors are
the behaviors which can be controlled by us. The timeline and the frequency of the reinforcement
deals about how innovated behaviors are learned and the methods of modification of the old
behaviors. Skinner identified various schedules of the reinforcement which impact the
instrumental conditioning methods are like Fixed-ratio, Fixed-Interval, Continuous, Variable
ratio and Variable interval.
In Psychology, Imitation can be defined as the performance or reproduction of the act
which is stimulated through the perception of the similar performance by another human being.
It involves a structure where the response and the attention are directed. Imitation as a
descriptive term is the broad range of various behaviors. Similar acts are caused due to some
same psychological goals and mechanisms. Imitation contains two types of theories namely,
associative and transformational6. Transformational theories describes that the data that are
required to present some behavior is generated internally by various cognitive methods whereas
associative theories describes the data required are not displayed within themselves but are
represented from environment and experiences. Imitation plays an important role as method how
the toddler interprets the world. Imitation is the toddler way to confirm or refuse social actions in
the society. Over imitation is defined as tendency of the young children to duplicate the actions
made by the adult even the actions that are not needed for their childhood.
6 Moore, Chris. The development of commonsense psychology. Psychology Press, 2013.

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REFERENCE LIST
Loftus, Geoffrey R., and Elizabeth F. Loftus. Human memory: The processing of information.
Psychology Press, 2019.
Catmur, Caroline, and Cecilia Heyes. "Mirroring ‘meaningful’actions: Sensorimotor learning
modulates imitation of goal-directed actions." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
72.2 (2019): 322-334.
Ahmed, Ola, and Peter F. Lovibond. "Rule-based processes in generalisation and peak shift in
human fear conditioning." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72.2 (2019): 118-131.
Gilmartin, Marieke R., Janine L. Kwapis, and Fred J. Helmstetter. "NR2A-and NR2B-containing
NMDA receptors in the prelimbic medial prefrontal cortex differentially mediate trace, delay,
and contextual fear conditioning." Learning & memory 20.6 (2013): 290-294.
McLeod, Saul. "Skinner-operant conditioning." Retrieved from (2015).
Moore, Chris. The development of commonsense psychology. Psychology Press, 2013.