Comparative Analysis: Australian and New Zealand English Varieties

This essay provides a comparative analysis of Australian and New Zealand English, focusing on their historical development and linguistic features. It explores how social and linguistic factors have shaped these varieties, highlighting the impact of immigration, indigenous languages, and regional variations. The essay examines phonological, phonetic, and lexical differences, including the influence of Southern English accents, the presence of high rising terminals (HRT) in Australian English, and the impact of Maori language on New Zealand English. Furthermore, the essay discusses regional variations and the evolution of accents over time, offering insights into the unique characteristics of each English variety within the Southern Hemisphere.

Compare and contrast the historical development and linguistic features of EITHER (a) Two different
North American English varieties OR (b) Two different varieties of English in the Southern Hemisphere.
How have social and linguistic factors combined and contributed to the varieties in different ways?
Introduction
Nowadays English has become the most popular language all around the world. Therefore, English is
used as the official language of many countries and territories on the world, including the Southern
Hemisphere. However, at different countries and places, due to the influence of social and linguistic
factors, there are different varieties of English. In this essay, I will compare and contrast the historical
development and linguistic features of two main English varieties in the Southern Hemisphere,
Australian English and New Zealand English, as well as find out the ways that social and linguistic factors
affected these English varieties.
Historical development
In the book “International English: a guide to varieties of English around the world” by Peter Trudgill and
Jean Hannah (2017), It has been said that despite the lengthy gap between countries, it is generally
difficult for English speakers in the other parts of the world to differentiate between Australian English
and New Zealand English speakers. (to some extent, South African English).
Trudgill and Hannah also pointed out that, not only their languages, there are also similarities between
their sociolinguistic situation. The regional variation is an example, compared to the amount of regional
variation used in British English, very little regional variation found in Australian and New Zealand
English.
Since the beginning of the 19th century, both Australians and New Zealands (as well as South Africans)
lived.
The main different thing between Australia and New Zealand is the immigrants. While almost all British
immigrants in Australia are convicts, most of British immigrants in New Zealand are from rural areas or
higher social groups.
Australian English.
Throughout the 17th century, however, the Dutch, British and other European nations arrived
throughout Australia, but only in 1788, when the first fleet landed in New South Wales, when the colony
was set up in Sydney, was this territory settled. For over the next 80 years, Australia became the prison
for the British as about 180000 convicts was transported to this country. Until the period of the “gold
rush”, the British finally realised the potential of Australia and thus stop sending prisoners there. In the
1890s, 6 separate colonies of the British Empire formed the Commonwealth of Australia.

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the main resident of Australia was the Indigenous (Aboriginal)
Australian with the population of ½ to 1 million. After the Europeans came, the Indigenous population
decrease due to diseases. There were more the 200 different languages used by the Aboriginal
Australian before English, but only less than half of them are still spoken nowadays. Recently, the
Indigenous Australian population have increase as 786689 Australians were identified as Aboriginal
which is 17.4% higher than 2011. Nowadays, 3.3% of Australia total population is Aboriginal Australian.
However, most Australian aboriginal people are not able to understand indigenous languages since
many Australian children become the first speakers of Australian Native English (AAE).
Generally, AADs pass into a spectrum between crolectal (mostly like SAE) and basilectal (less than SAE),
also known as 'medium' or 'heavy' AAE. AAE is commonly referred to as 'medium.' Many find it hard to
differentiate heavy AAE from Australia English Creoles, as heavy AAE are usually spoken with Creole
languages and indigenous languages in remote areas. Butcher claimed in 2008 that AAE was inadequate,
imperfect, corrective English' He also pointed out, however, that AAE varieties can be viewed as
separate English dialects.
While there is always no regard for Australian English regional variation, it does occur. When individual
Australians were born and brought up 200 years ago, they all established Australian English, that is,
Australian English. In the past, the Australian accents of English were characterized by a broad spectrum
from "Strong" (least as RP) to "Common" (moderately as RP) to “Cultivated "(most as RP) from late 19th
to early 20th centuries. There's a transition from broad and developed to general accent in Australian
English after 40 years, as usual.
There are some noticeable features of English in differences parts of Australia. For example, the
diphthongs in words such as ear, neared, air may be monotonies by Eastern states speakers, young
speakers in Victoria usually merge the first vowels in celery and salary. Unlike many other accents, South
Australia English speakers used the /??/ vowel as in cart in chance instead of /æ/ as in cat
New Zealand English
Though, in 2012, Donn Bayard claimed that the New Zealanders have known the disparity in their own
language for a span of at least a century (Gordon 1983a, 1983b), although they found that the Australian
English and NZ English were close to each other. New Zealand was discovered for the first time in 1642
by a Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, the name New Zealand was originally come from a Dutch mapmaker
who call it Nieuw Zeeland. In 1769, the second European, captain James Cook came to New Zealand and
claimed the islands for British Crown. On February 6, 1840, New Zealand’s first Governor, William
Hobson, invited the Mãori chiefs to sign the Treaty of Waitangi with the British Crown. After the treaty,
immigrants from British started to came to New Zealand. Unlike Australia, most of the British
immigrants in New Zealand were from rural areas or higher social groups. After the discovery of gold
(from 1860s) immigrants from Australia and Southern England also come to New Zealand.
The Mãoris was the largest population of New Zealand since the arrival of the Europeans, together with
their language. The population was consequently reduced because of European diseases and arms.

New Zealand is a trilingual country with three official languages: English, Mãori and New Zealand Sign
Language. English, which is spoken by 96% of the population, is the most popular language in New
Zealand. Due to recent immigrants, the number of multilingualism have increased, in 2006 17.5% of New
Zealand population were bilingual or multilingual. Between 2001 to 2006 there was also a doubling in
the number of speakers between Hindi, Mandarin, Korean and Afrikaans. Bilingual or multilingual are
just 10% of New Zealand-born people.
Between the Kiwi people are myths such as the "wide-emphasizing cow cocky and the sophisticated
scholar." Yet Bayard revealed a strong disagreement notion that New Zealand is the social "class;
differences differed in accents of New Zealand English. Most people believe New Zealand is a" classless
"culture. The lower impression of the Kiwis, the assumption that New Zealand English is more than a
non-standard RP version, is also an impacted factor in New Zealand English accent. Speaker's social
features can also affect interpretation. For examples, we might understand the difference between an
old speaker and a young speaker. Hay et al. (2006) work can affect how we interpret vowelry when
listening to a speaker with a different dialect.
Like in Australia the regional variation in New Zealand is relatively small and were settled recently
therefore, for most of that time New Zealanders can maintain good communication throughout the
country. However, there are still some regionally variable vocabulary such as the term “holiday house” is
called “bach” in North Island and “crib” in South Island.
Holmes (2005) has stated that the concept of “Maori English” cannot be used to refer any “identifiable
dialect”. He also points out that "Maori English" consists of a number of variations that differ according
to a scale, which number from standard to vernacular. In 2008, Hay et al pointed out some phonological
features of Maori English. The “Goose” vowel of Maori English is very fronted, the initial /t/ can sound
like ‘d’, the final /z/ can be devoiced in plurals, and ‘th’ can be pronounced /t/ or /d/. Another common
feature of Maori English is TH-pronting, ‘th’ can be pronounced /f/ or /v/. These features can also be
recognized in standard New Zealand English but not as much as in Maori English. The discourse particle
and the rhythm (more syllable timed) are also special features of Maori English.
Linguistic features.
Australian English.
The Linguistic features of Australian English can be recognized as the developments of Southern English
accent, though cultivated Australian English shows RP influence.
Phonological
In the book “International English: a guide to varieties of English around the world”, Peter Trudgill and
Jean Hannah pointed out the phonological features of Australian English. Firstly, as Australia was settled
in the early 19th century, Australian English shared some phonological traits at the time of Southern
England. Non-RP accents are an example, many of us in certain words, etc. Australian English has /i:/
instead of /I/ and therefore while the vowels in the word “city” is different, the word “seedy” In all

syllables has the same vowel. Australian English also has /?/ instead of /I/ in unstressed syllables, for
example “begin” /b?gIn/ and “laxity” /læks?ti:/. RP smoothing of /?u?/>/?:/, etc., does not occur.
Phonetic.
In Australian "tall" accents, vowels are the major distinctions between Australian English and British
English. The following were some clear variations between Trudgill and Hannah. First of all, front vowels
tend to be closer in Australian English than in RP, for instance, the word "bid" will sound even more
like /bid/. Secondly, those diphthongs are longer in the English language of the Australian language than
RP, which means that the first element is open and the second element is closed. The "slower"
preference for diphthongs (the first dimension is longer) is the third distinction relative to RP. Fourth,
the vowel /a:/ is rather front /a:/ relative to other English varieties. Fifth, the last word /? / is really
accessible at times. And ultimately 6th relative to English, the /? / Vowel gets a lot of lip- normally.
Consonants
Of Australian English consonants, Trudgill and Hannah noted the following. Firstly, Australian English has
a non-rhotic relation with intnish /r/, which makes Australian /r/ stronger than English. Second, the
intervocal t / t the become a voiced flap like North American English, but it is not as usual as in North
American English and /t/ is also often used here. 'Match them' is the only context in which /t/ can take
place. As in the "kit," "pack" glottal strengthening does not take place. In the end, the English of
Australian also has a darker variant than in RP.
Lexis.
In comparison with the vocabulary differences between British English and American English, the
vocabulary differences between Australian English and British English are relatively small. The main
differences in lexis come from colloquial vocabulary, and the others are the result of borrowings word
from Australian aboriginal language, e.g., kangaroo, boomerang, dingo, billabong and many names for
indigenous plants and creatures. Clipping and adding a diminutive suffix, e.g., Barbie (barbecue), arvo
(evening), tinnie (can), is also a vocabulary difference between Australian English and British English.
High rising terminals (HRT)
In a comedy show, an Australian comedian, Adam Hills, mentioned the HRT (Australians sound like they
are asking question) when he talked about Australian accents. Many studies about HRT pointed out
some specific features. Firstly, HRT is traditionally characterized in non-question discourse contexts as a
question-like increase. Furthermore, structurally speaking, HRT is not the same intonation as a yes-no
question. Finally, in older people in NZ and Australia, it is regarded as a comparatively new trend at the
language group stage, while individuals other than the normal HRT expression groups have used it in an
idiotic manner. But in 2010, Fletcher and Loakes said that Australians don't often view this pattern of
intonation as questions, but only if the pitch is high and much higher.

Unlike /l/ vocalization, HRTs seem to be very sensitive to both speaker sex and speaker age, with young
people more likely to use them than old and women greater users than men. In addition, ethnicity also
has been considered as a sensitive factor, in New Zealand for example.
New Zealand English.
New Zealand English, due to the substantial migration from Australia as well as from the UK, is largely
similar to Australian English. The phonological distinctions of both varieties are very similar to RP. The
main difference thing is phonetic.
Phonetics and phonology.
As Trudgill and Hannah mention in their book (2017), many people from others English speaking
territories find it difficult to distinguish between New Zealand English speakers and Australian English
speakers. This is mainly due to the fact that New Zealand English accents are very, both phonetically and
phonologically similar to Australian English, especially older speakers.
New Zealand English also share some vowel features with Australian English such as having /i:/ in
very, /?/ in naked, wider and slower diphthongs than RP, a very front /a:/ and lacks of smoothing.
However, Trudgill and Hannah also pointed out some differences between these English varieties. The
clearest and most noticeable indication to differentiate a speaker of Australian English and a English
speaker of New Zealand is the contrast among Australian English “bid” /bid/ as well as New Zealand
“bid” /bd/. In the New Zealand English, there is no distinction between /I/ and /?/ for example, the word
“finish” would sound like /f?n?f/ and thus, the vowel /?/ does not exist in English of New Zealand only
the vowel/I/ but pronounced as /?/. Just like Australian English, Zealand English also have short vowel
shift. Although the short vowel shift of the language of Australian English as well as New Zealand English
are nearly the same, there are still a few differences that can be recognized for example while the term
“fish and chips” is pronounced as “feesh and cheeps” in the Australian English, it is pronounced “fush
and chups” in the New Zealand English. Another recognizable difference is New Zealand English speakers
tend to diphthongize /e/ to /i?/ in some contexts, especially before /d/.
The diphthong shift is another similar linguistic factor in between the Australian English as well as New
Zealand English. The first element is lowered and centralized, with cross-over of /a-/ and /?-/.
Diphthongs have a characteristically long first element in broad accents.
Some words with /?:/ in RP are pronounced /æ/ in Australian English, especially before Nasal+Cons.
Australian English as well as English of New Zealand are both non-rhotic, except for some accents in
south of South Island (NZ). They both have no break in V+r+V, and no smoothing of triphthongs.
Consonants.
The /w/ and /?/ contrast is affected in Australian English, but quite common in New Zealand English,
possibly due to the influence of Scottish English. The /?/ of “which” has been maintained in New Zealand
English, however, it is now lost in the speech of New Zealand youngsters. Just like in Australian English,

the intervocalic /t/ also become a voice flap. Most forms of New Zealand English are non-rhotic with
linking and instrusive /r/, but the local accents of the southern area of the South Island, comprising parts
of Otago and Southland, are rhotic. The area concerned centres on Invercargill and includes Gore,
Tapanui, Winton, Nightcaps and Ohai). This occurrence is known as the 'Southland burr' in New Zealand
and is often attributed to the influence of immigrants from Scotland and Ireland. Unlike British English,
the word with /w?ð/ is pronounced /w??/ in New Zealand English. Just like Australian English, New
Zealand English also have a very dark /l/ in all context
Grammar.
New Zealand English speakers, just like Australian English speakers, usually avoid using shall, should and
thus, the construction “I’ll give it him” is totally lack. In written language, singular verb agreement as in
“the team is playing badly” is preferred. The difference between these varieties is New Zealand English
speakers even go further than Australian English speakers in “shall-avoidance”, they often use the
construction “will I” instead of “shall I” or “should I”, for example “Will I close the window?” instead of
“Shall I close the window?”. Trudgill and Hannah also found that, instead of “at the weekend” in British
English or “on the weekend” in North American English, many New Zealand English speakers use “in the
weekend”.
Lexis.
New Zealand English and Australian English both borrowed many word from the indigenous languages
to call place names, animals, plants. In New Zealand, many Mãori words are borrowed such as mako (a
type of shark), kaka (type of parrot), pohutukawa (type of tree) to call flora and fauna, haka (Mãori
dance), iwi (tribe) and kaumatua (elder) to call cultural things.
New Zealand English also have many innovations, mainly colloquialisms, e.g., to farewell (to say
goodbye), to jack up (to arrange) and to flat (to live in a shared flat).
Conclusion.
In this case, Australian English and New Zealand English are identical in the Southern Hemisphere as
other studies have shown. At the beginning of the 19th century, both areas were settled, representing
all of South England's changes up to that time English from Australia and New Zealand shared the non-
rhotic accent with an increasing and glottal Bath. Both varieties developed their own characteristics such
as the loss of weak-syllable contrast /?/ vs. /?/, the raising of short front vowels TRAP and DRESS and the
HRTs, Etc. However, there are still a few differences between Australian English and New Zealand
English such as the short vowels shift and the contrast in between Australian English “bid” /bid/ as well
as New Zealand “bid” /bd. All of the unique characteristics with the contributed of social and linguistic
factors have created two differences English varieties.
References.
Trudgill, P., & Hannah, J. (2017). International English: a guide to the varieties of standard English.
London: Routledge

Holmes, J. (2005). Using M?ori English in New Zealand. International Journal of the Sociology of
Language, 2005(172).
Hay, J., & Bresnan, J. (2006). Spoken syntax: The phonetics of giving a hand in New Zealand
English. The Linguistic Review, 23(3).
Gordon, E. (1983). New Zealand English Pronunciation: An Investigation into Some Early Written
Records. Te Reo. Journal of the Linguistic Society of New Zealand Auckland, 26, 29–42.