Comprehensive Report on Biological Cells: Structure and Functionality

This report provides a detailed overview of several biological cells, including human red blood cells, plant palisade layer cells, Neisseria gonorrhea, and small intestine epithelial cells. It describes the structure, function, and characteristics of each cell type. The red blood cell's unique disk-like shape and hemoglobin content for oxygen transport are discussed, along with its prevalence in the human body. The palisade layer cells in plants, responsible for photosynthesis due to their high chloroplast content, are examined. Neisseria gonorrhea, a bacterium causing sexually transmitted infections, is explained in terms of its transmission, symptoms, and diagnostic methods. Finally, the epithelial cells of the small intestine, crucial for absorption and protection, are detailed, including their rapid renewal process and the role of goblet cells. The report references several studies to support the information presented.

BIOLOGICAL CELLS
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Human Red Blood Cell

The human red blood cell consist of a disk-like shape with a diameter approximated to 6.2–8.2
μm while its thickness is at a thickness point of 2–2.5 μm and at the minimum of 0.8–1 μm at
the Centre of thickness, therefore, this makes the smaller compared to other human cells. Their
average volume is 90 FL and their surface is 135 μm2, therefore they can easily swell making a
spherical shape that can hold 150FL, without distention of the membrane.
Figure 1: Red blood cell (D’Alessandro, D’Amici, Vaglio and Zolla 2012)
It confirmed that most adults have an average of 25 trillion of these red blood cells at a given
time thus constituting to about 71% of a number of all the cells found in the human body. There
are about 4 to 5 million red blood cells in a microliter of a woman booed while it is 5 to 6 in
men: though people in the areas of high altitude has more. Therefore red blood cell is the most
commonly compared to another blood cell.
Red blood cell completes a circulation cycle within 60 sec. Hemoglobin-containing the hemic
iron ion gives the blood its red color. One human red blood cell contains about 270 million of the
hemoglobin molecules while each molecule of hemoglobin carries at least four heme groups:
therefore contributing to about a third cell volume total. This hemoglobin help in about 98% of

oxygen transportation about 2.5 g of adult human male iron are stored in a red blood cell, this
approximately 65% of iron contained in the body collectively
Plant palisade layer
These plant cells are found in the leaves below the cuticle and the epidermis. They are elongated
vertically, through a shape. Differently from the spongy mesophyll cell found beneath then
within the leave. The chloroplast found in these cells absorbs the most percentage of light energy
used by the leaf the palisade cells are found in both net-veined monocots and dicotyledonous
plant. The palisade cells have a large number of chloroplast thus making them the primary site of
photosynthesis especially in those leaves that have them: the most help in converting the light
energy to carbohydrate chemical energy. Palisade mesophyll also have spongy mesophyll cell
which also helps in the process of photosynthesis, through their cell shape is irregular therefore
has many intercellular spaces that facilitate the rate of the gaseous exchange(Hall 2016).

Figure2: Plant palisade layer (Kusuda et al 2013).
Neisseria gonorrhea
This disease that is transmitted by oral, vaginal, rectum sexual and even from the mother to the
child during pregnancy. This disease is singularly known as gonococci and gonococci in plural
which is a gram diplococcic bacteria negative species. This disease is by sexually transmitted
genitourinary infection and other forms gonococcal diseases e.g. septic arthritis, disseminated
gonococcemia and gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum (Zhong, Wei, Zhou, Wang and Li 2013).
It oxidase is both positive and aerobic making it survive within the neutrophils. Supplementation
of carbon dioxide and enriched ager having various antimicrobials are required during its
culturing. In most cases, it exhibits antigenic variation via tits pili recombination with surface
protein causing the immune system interaction. The transmission is possible by all oral anal and
virginal sex but can be only be protected by the use of a protective barrier. The transmission to a
child is at birth and therefore the protection can be done by treating the mother using the
antibiotic treatment before the baby birth and even applying an eye gel on the eye of the baby.

Figure 3: Neisseria gonorrhea symptoms (Sufrin, Postlethwaite, Armstrong, Merchant, Wendt
and Steinauer 2012)
After gonococcal infection episode, the person infected does not develop immunity for infection
in future there can be possible for reinfection because of the ability of Neisseria gonorrhea to
evade immune system due to its varying protein surface. This disease also causes eye, genital
and even throat infection. One of the most common infections in both male and female is an
asymptomatic infection and the untreated infection always spread to the whole body mostly to
the joint (septic arthritis). In female when not treated, it causes pelvic inflammatory disease and
can lead to infertility as a result scarring. It can be diagnosed through gram stain culture or

polymerase chain reaction of the sample urine testing, swabbing of urethra and swabbing of the
cervix.
The epithelial cell of small intestine
This is a part of the intestinal mucosa layer that composed of a single cell layer. The two layers
of the mucosa that is the lamina propria and the muscularis mucosae provide support and also
articulate the layer of the epithelial layer. These cells are renewed every 4-5 days during the cell
division process.The epithelial cell of the small intestine has an anatomical complex structure
that facilitates the mobility and digestive coordinated, immunological, absorptive and even
neuroendocrine functions. The goblet secretes mucus that lubricates while offering protection to
the layer of the epithelial cell against mucosal content irritation.
Figure 4: The epithelial cell of the small intestine (McDole et al 2012).

References
D’Alessandro, A., D’Amici, G.M., Vaglio, S. and Zolla, L., 2012. Time-course investigation of
SAGM-stored leukocyte-filtered red blood cell concentrates: from metabolism to
proteomics. Haematologica, 97(1), pp.107-115.
Hall, J.E., 2016. Red blood cells, anemia, and polycythemia. Guyton and Hall textbook of
medical physiology.
Kusuda, S., Yaskawa, Y., Shibata, H., Saito, T., Doi, O., Ohya, Y. and Yoshizaki, N., 2013.
Diversity in the matrix structure of eggshells in the Testudines (Reptilia). Zoological
science, 30(5), pp.366-374.
McDole, J.R., Wheeler, L.W., McDonald, K.G., Wang, B., Konjufca, V., Knoop, K.A.,
Newberry, R.D. and Miller, M.J., 2012. Goblet cells deliver luminal antigen to CD103+ dendritic
cells in the small intestine. Nature, 483(7389), p.345.
Sufrin, C.B., Postlethwaite, D., Armstrong, M.A., Merchant, M., Wendt, J.M. and Steinauer,
J.E., 2012. Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis screening at intrauterine device
insertion and pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 120(6), pp.1314-1321.

Zhong, M.C., Wei, X.B., Zhou, J.H., Wang, Z.Q. and Li, Y.M., 2013. Trapping red blood cells in
living animals using optical tweezers. Nature communications, 4, p.1768.