Biological Sciences Assignment: Human Body and Diseases Study

This biological sciences assignment covers a range of topics related to the human body and diseases. It begins with an overview of the immune system, detailing the roles of antigens and antibodies, and explaining the processes of antigen presentation and immune responses. The assignment then explores the concept of vaccination, including its mechanisms, advantages, and disadvantages, and mass vaccination. The discussion continues with an examination of cancer, specifically breast and lung cancer, including risk factors, genetic influences, and cell cycle disruptions. The structure of prokaryotic cells and the function of antibiotics are also addressed. Finally, the assignment delves into the circulatory system, focusing on the heart and coronary artery disease, including treatment interventions. This assignment provides a comprehensive analysis of key biological concepts and their implications for human health.

Running head: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Biological Sciences
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Task 1
In the immune system of the human body, the role of antigen and antibodies are most
important and in this context, it can be stated that for providing internal security to the body,
the antibodies play the primary role. In an antibody, there are four polypeptide chains and
among them two is heavy chain and two are light chain. The immune system is activated
when antigen enters the body and then interacts with the antibody’s variable region. An
antibody is made up of a constant and a variable region. The antigen interacts with an antigen
in that variable region. The activation of the T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes take place
during entrance of foreign particles and so a rapid proliferation of plasma cells occurs. The
presentation of antigens to the antibodies is executed through the process of antigen
presentation that is the process of protein antigen presentation to the lymphocytes in a form
of shorter peptide fragment (Punt et al. 2019). The antigen presentation is executed by the
antigen presenting molecules such as Major histocompatibility complex class I or class II
(MHC class I or MHC class II) on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). After
identifying the antigen the defence mechanism is activated and starts the process of
proliferation. The two types of immune responses are innate immune response and acquired
immune response. The first one is first line of defence against any pathogen of the body and
this defence mechanism is gained during the time of birth. On the other hand, the second is
gained by an individual due to exposure of multiple antigens and is gained by by vaccination
(Tao and Xu 2016).
Task 2
The concept of vaccination is one of the most crucial measures for preventing various
types of diseases and it is mainly associated with providing support to the immune system of

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the body. Vaccination mainly is used for the training process of the immune system of the
body. Primarily an individual is exposed to a specific pathogen through the process of
vaccination. During vaccination, a weak and asymptomatic version of a particular pathogen is
injected into the body and due to the exposure the immune system of the body is triggered
easily and as a result the production of memory T cells and B cells occur. As a result, body
can identify the presence of that particular pathogen in future and initiates the immunity
process (Hewitson and Maizels 2014). The inactivated vaccines are a dead or heat killed
pathogen is used to trigger the immune system and the immune system can produce specific
antibody against those pathogens. Mass vaccination refers to the vaccination campaign for a
huge number of people over a short period of time. The advantages of the mass vaccination
are associated with accelerating the disease control mechanism to enhance the coverage with
a new vaccine at the time of introducing the vaccine into the routine immunization program.
Moreover, mass vaccination can help a nation to reduce the mortality rate as a huge number
of people are covered by this disease. As a part of disadvantage it can be stated that, due to
the huge pressure of vaccinating a lot of people, the chances of immunization errors may take
place. Moreover, it can be stated that the presence of rumours can damage the vaccination
campaign (Prescott 2016).
Task 3
As per the data of the UK, it is reported that the breast cancer and lung cancer are the
most common type of cancers in the country and it is stated that like all other cancers, the
breast cancer is also characterized by the uncontrolled growth of the cells in the particular
region that is in case of breast cancer the uncontrolled cell growth is reported in the breast
(Rakha et al. 2015). According to the study of Gilbert et al. (2015), it is stated that there are a
few risk factors which are closely associated with the breast cancers among the women. The
risk factors are mainly history of breast cancer in the family members, increasing ages,

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presence of certain genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, history of breast cancer in an
individual previously. Another crucial genetic factor that is associated with the onset of breast
cancer among the women is activation of HER 2 genes. According to the study of Hsu and
Hung (2016), it is stated that over expression of HER 2 genes is associated with the
transformation of cells into the malignant cells. It is reported that the expression of HER 2
genes is 10 to 40 per cent higher in breast cancer cases and so it can be stated that the role of
HER2 is crucial in the onset of breast cancer among women. Along with this, it is also
reported in the study that that for the treatment of breast cancer, the use of HER targeted
therapy has become very popular and it also indicates that the activation and overexpression
of HER2 have crucial impact on the onset of breast cancer among women. Moreover, in some
cases, it is also stated that obesity can also enhance the risks of breast cancer among the
individuals (Kuchenbaecker et al. 2017). In case breast cancer, overexpression of cyclins D1
and E take place and along with this down-regulation of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors is
also reported. Therefore, the normal cell cycle is disrupted and uncontrolled growth is
reported. In case of lung cancer, it is stated that the alteration of the components of the G1
phase to S phase transition takes place and sequential accumulation promotes the
uncontrolled cellular proliferation of the lung cells in the human body. Therefore, the
alterations in the components of cell cycle checkpoints in the human lung tumour can cause
lung cancer in the body. Due to the uncontrolled mitosis of the lung cells, the normal lung
cells are converted into tumour cells. In case of cancer cells, the regulation of the cell cycle is
altered and as this check point regulation is not maintained properly in mitosis cell division.
As a result, the mitosis cell division becomes uncontrolled in nature (Sherr and Bartek 2017).
Task 4
A prokaryotic cell refers to the cells of the unicellular organisms which lack the
presence of cell organelles like eukaryotic cells. Moreover, this type of cell does not have any

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type of well-structured nucleus and it is also true that there is a double stranded DNA
structure is present and this structure is located in an area of the cells called nucleoid. For
example, it can be stated that the prokaryotic cell structure is observed in bacteria and in a
general prokaryotic cell the organelles are mainly ribosome, plasma membrane, and
cytoplasm (Prescott 2014). The cell well of a prokaryotic cell mainly contain peptidoglycan
comprised of polysaccharide chains that are cross-linked by infrequent peptides comprising
both D- and L-amino acids, that includes D-alanine and D-glutamic acid. However, in some
cases it is stated that the prokaryotic cells may have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Such types of
organelles are mainly used for the locomotion of the cells or bacteria and the pilli are used for
the purpose of conjugation. The plasma membrane is responsible for protecting the cell
structure and the genetic materials present inside the body of the cells. The nucleoid in the
prokaryotic cell is responsible for transmitting genetic information to the next generation
during the conjugation process in the bacteria (Prescott 2014). In some prokaryotic cells,
presence of cilia is also reported and it is mainly used for loco motion of the bacteria.
Task 5
An antibiotic refers to the medicines that can inhibit the growth or destructions of the
microorganisms which are unknown to the human immune system. According to the various
studies Liu et al. (2015), it is stated that the antibiotics are very useful for fighting against
certain infections and is capable of destroying the bacteria. The antibiotic helps in the
destruction process by killing the bacterial structure and the bacteria can no longer attack the
body of the individual. Moreover, the antibiotics can also block the growth of the bacteria or
the process of growth of the growth and this type of antibiotic is referred to bacteriostatic
antibiotics and this type of bacteriostatic antibiotics prevent the nutrients from reaching the
bacteria and as a result the stoppage of cell division and multiplication occur in the body of
the human being. Most of the cases, it is stated that the bacteria enhance their colony by the

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process of conjugation and plasmid present inside the bacteria is associated with the process
of bacterial conjugation process (Olsen 2015).
According to the study of Fair and Tor (2014), it is stated that the consumption of
antibiotics is associated with the bacterial resistance that is in some cases it is observed that in
spite of applying antibiotic, the bacterial infection cannot be overcome due to bacterial
resistance. Overuse of a specific antibiotic can make the particular pathogen strong against
that medicine and as a result the antibiotic is unable to kill the bacteria. Due to the bacterial
resistance, the antibiotic is unable to kill the pathogen and the bacteria continue to grow in
the human body (Llor and Bjerrum 2014).
Task 6
Heart is the organ which is responsible for the circulation of blood in the whole body
of the human beings through the various blood vessels in the body. Due to auto-rhythmic
nature of the cardiac muscles, the blood is circulated in the various part of the body through
the pulmonary artery, aorta, and pulmonary veins, superior and inferior vena cava. The heart
of the human body works when the right atria of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from
the various part of the body and after entering the right atrium the blood flows into the right
ventricle through the bicuspid valve and then the right ventricle pumps the blood the into the
lungs for the process of gas exchanging and then that oxygenated blood comes to the left atria
through the pulmonary vein and then this oxygenated blood enter into the left ventricle
through the tricuspid valve and then the oxygenated blood is circulated to various part of the
body (Hall 2015). It is reported that the inferior and superior vena cava are responsible for
carrying deoxygenated blood from the different body parts to the right atrium of the body.
Along with this, the pulmonary artery also exerts the same functions like vena cava and is
responsible for carrying less oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and on the contrary

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pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium. From the left ventricle of the
body, aorta carries oxygenated blood to the different body parts (Hall 2015).
Task 7
Coronary artery disease is one of the common problems around the different countries
of the world and it is stated that it is very crucial to treat this condition for preventing further
damage to the cardiac muscles. In order to treat this condition various pharmacological and
non-pharmacological interventions can be recommended (Hall 2015). As a part of non-
pharmacological interventions, diet modification, exercise program, cholesterol free diet
program can be used. In pharmacological treatment Coronary artery bypass grafting or
CABG can be used and in this surgery a healthy artery or vein is connected to the blocked
coronary artery and the blood flows through the new way. Moreover, in order to reduce the
blood pressure various medicines such as beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers can be
used (Koeppen and Stanton 2017). The function of beta blockers and calcium channel blocker
is associated with the anti-ischemic and antiarrhythmic effects and therefore the reduction of
heart rate also takes place. In order to enhance the blood flow to the heart blood thinner such
as aspirin can be used as it help to reduce the thickness of the blood and thereby enhances the
blood flow. In this context, the use of angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) and
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors can be recommended. ACE inhibitor is
associated with the dilation of the blood vessels and as a result more amount of blood enters
into the heart and the blood pressure is lowered. On the other hand, ARBs prevent the action
of angiotensin II by preventing it from binding with the receptors present on the blood vessels
(Koeppen and Stanton 2017).

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Llor, C. and Bjerrum, L., 2014. Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic
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