Biology IMRaD Project: Characteristics, Immunity, and Antibiotics

This IMRaD project report provides a comprehensive overview of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protoctista, detailing their characteristics and key methods of pathogen spread. It delves into the human immune system, exploring the concepts of immunity and immunization, distinguishing between innate and acquired immunity, and examining antibody formation resulting from both artificial and natural antigen exposure. Furthermore, the report analyzes the effects of antibiotics in disease control, discussing both their benefits and the long-term implications of overuse on pathogen resistance. The content covers key aspects of biology, including microbiology, immunology, and pharmacology, providing a detailed understanding of infectious diseases and their management.

IMRaD Project

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................3
1.1 Characteristics of viruses, bacteria, protoctista and fungi.....................................................3
. .2 Key methods by which pathogens spread..............................................................................3
DISCCUSSION...............................................................................................................................4
Immunity and immunisation........................................................................................................4
Antibody formation resulting from artificial and natural exposure to antigens..........................5
Effects of the use of antibiotics in the control of disease............................................................7
Long term effects of overuse of antibiotics on pathogen resistance............................................8
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Characteristics of viruses, bacteria, protoctista and fungi
It is important for people to understand the difference between virus, bacteria, fungi and
protoctista so that they can take medicines accordingly. It is known that antibiotics are being
taken for bacterial infection not in the cases of viral infection. But some people take antibiotics
when they have viral infection and it can affect their health. So, protecting against side effects
and improving health, it is important to know characteristics of virus, fungi, protoctista and
bacteria.
Virus is simplest of germs and when it enters into human body then it can hijack their
cellular machinery to produce clone of itself (Woolhouse and Brierley, 2018). Cold and flu are
some viral infections. HIV/AIDS, covid-19 and Ebola are some chronic viral infections that
happen because of viruses. Vaccination is the best way of protecting people against viral
infections.
Bacteria are bigger as well as complex than viruses as they can spread through air. They
can reproduce and spread anywhere on its own and it is the reason it is called dangerous. It
produces toxins and weaken immune system to kill bacteria and in such cases, people are being
prescribed with antibiotics. Urinary tract infection, sore throat of some types, tuberculosis are
some bacterial infections.
Fungi are complicated organisms than both viruses and bacteria as they have cells. This
fungi infection is being caused by overgrowth of commensal fungus (Liu and et.al., 2018).
Valley fever, yeast infection and meningitis are some health diseases and fungi infections.
Protoctista are eukaryotic organism. More protists are aquatic and some can found in
damp environment. They show autotrophic as well as heterotrophic nutrition.
. .2 Key methods by which pathogens spread
Speaking in relation with pathogen, they are being referred as an organism that leads to
diseases. The human body is full of microbes. Nevertheless, all these microbes cause an issue
only in the situation when the immune system of an individual is weak or if they managed to step
in a normally sterile section of the human body. There are varied types of pathogens and can
cause disease though entering the human body (Peng, Chen and Liu, 2020). There are varied
methods through which the pathogens can be spread and transmitted based on their type. They
can usually spread through skin contact, bodily fluids, contact with feces, airborne particles and

through touching the surface touched by an infected individual. The explanation of the methods
by which the pathogens spread is being elaborated in the subsequent section:
 Direct contact – Pathogens can be spread through direct contact through person to person
contact wherein the infected person might touch the surface area or the bottle of
handwash and the other person touches the same bottle again. There is one more direct
method such as droplet spread which involves spray of droplets which is being spread
during sneezing as well coughing (Rothstein and et.al., 2021).
 Indirect contact – Other than direct contact, there are different methods though which
pathogens can be spread and the most common among them are airborne transmission
and contaminated object. The type of viruses, fungi and bacteria are also pathogens
which can spread and make an individual ill.
DISCCUSSION
Immunity and immunisation
The present atmosphere is full of potentially harmful pathogens like viruses, parasites,
bacteria and fungi. All this might enter into the body of humans and can cause serious illness and
diseases. These pathogens enter into the body and begin to multiply. However, the human body
protects itself by different defence mechanism right from physically preventing the pathogens
from entering to killing them. The most important defence system of the body is immune system
which helps in determining an incursive creature and supports in destroying them. On the other
hand, immunization helps in preventing the disease through allowing the body to more rapidly
react to the attack and improves the immune reaction of a specific organism (Agrawal, Singh and
Yanow, 2020). Thus, it can be said that immunity is being defined as the capability of the
organism to defend by own against any pathogen and immunisation is the process that happens
which might result into killing of pathogen. Talking in relation with the immunity, there mainly
two types of immunity that is innate immunity and acquired immunity. Innate immunity means
the immunity which is present in the body from birth. It activates immediately as soon as the
pathogen attacks. It also involves certain barriers as well as defence mechanism that helps in
keeping the foreign bodies out of the human body. In contrast, acquired immunity is defined as
that immunity which is being acquired or gained by the body with passage of time. This is not

present by birth just like innate immunity. It is also being known as adaptive immunity. In
addition to this, it is very particular and is being mediated through antibodies or lymphocytes
which helps in making antigen harmless. The main role of this immunity is to relieve the victim
of the infectious disease and preventing its attach in the future course of time.
According to Kelly, Kent and Wheatley (2019), immunisation on the other hand as
defined above is the capacity of the human body to generate an immune reaction naturally or
through vaccines. These types of methods help in developing immunity and resistance to a
particular kind of illness or disease. It is the ability by which the person can be made resistant to
specific illness through the administration of vaccine. The fundamental principle of
immunisation is that the human body initiates to create antibodies against it upon administration
of the vaccine with a view to ensure that the individual is safe from disease. Seeking help from
the vaccine, the body of an individual revives the evolution of infectious agents along with the
memory cells which can develop antibodies proximately upon additional acquaintance to the
communicable agents. Overall, it can be said that the immunisation can be judged after the
vaccination is being done. Immunization along with vaccination have a varied difference among
themselves.
Underpinning the discussion further, the immunisation is also being segregated into two
kinds that active and passive immunisation. Throwing light on the active immunisation, it is
being generated by the body itself for protecting against the infection by particular cells as well
as antibodies as encouraged through vaccines. To have full protection from the infection or
disease requires some time however it is enduring (Karch and Matyas, 2021). On the other side,
passive immunisation is defined as ready made antibodies which are being passes directly to the
person being immunised. This helps in immediate protection however it might only last a few
weeks or a month. There are different methods through which the antibodies are being passed
and are also purified from the blood or in laboratories. Antibodies can be directly injected for
offering fast however short-lived protection for a particular disease, for example tetanus, rabies
and diphtheria.
Antibody formation resulting from artificial and natural exposure to antigens
Antibodies are being referred as immunoglobulin proteins which are being concealed by
B-lymphocytes subsequent to encouragement by an explicit antigen. The antibodies being
formed are bind to the particular antigen for marking the antigen for destruction. Furthermore,

the kind of antigen exposure taking place in the human body helps in determining whether the
antibody formation is natural and artificial or synthetic. According to Born, Huang and Zeng
(2016), antibodies formation resulting from the natural exposure to antigen can be formed after
the exposure to environmental agents which are comparable or alike to red cell antigens like
dust, bacterial or pollen. In this, injections, sensitization by prior transfusions and pregnancy is
not essential. Moreover, these kinds of antibodies are generally IgM and response to its greatest
at the room temperature or lower than the room temperature. Many of these antibodies are not
important clinically with the exclusion of ABO antibodies. There are different examples of
antibodies formation that takes place from natural exposure of antigen such as A, anti-B, anti-
Cw, anti-M, and antibodies in the Lewis and P system.
According to Balbi and et.al. (2019), natural antibodies are being moulded and created
spontaneously devoid of any particular immunisation, in germ free situations. Further, antibodies
formation from the natural exposure to antigen are the first line of defence of the new-born
organism, even though the definition does not include anti-Gal natural or anti-Gal antibodies. On
the other hand, the artificial antibodies are being formed in germinal centres and before their
formation, the natural antibodies are being formed. They take place in different vertebrates such
as reptiles, amphibians’ mammals and human beings. Moving further, the antibodies being
formed from the natural exposure to antigen functions without worrying in regards with the
amount of damage took place, however to give protection to the body. Additionally, the body
being exposed to an antigen in an environment progresses or advances natural innate immunity
or natural antibodies (Silverman, 2015).
On contrary to this, antibodies formation resulting from the artificial exposure to antigen
is known as artificially acquits active immunity or antibodies which is the protection being
formulated by deliberately exposure of a person to antigen in a vaccine for the purpose of
producing an active as well as enduring immune reaction. The antigens in the immunization
animate the safe framework to create antibodies and memory cells which are explicitly
coordinated against the antigens in the antibody. After the vaccination, assuming the living
irresistible specialists with the identical antigens that were in the immunization get into the
individual's body, the right antibodies are as of now present and they tie to the irresistible
specialists. The memory cells create a fast safe reaction from the remainder of the invulnerable

framework, and the irresistible specialists are immediately gone after and obliterated, frequently
before indication of the infection can grow.
In addition to this, artificial antibodies are being developed for the utilization in research,
therapeutic as well as diagnostic applications. Other than this, they are being utilized in all
applications where outmoded monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies are utilized and provided
different characteristic benefits over animal derived antibodies. Additionally, antibodies
formation taking place from artificial or synthetic exposure of antigen are affinity reagents which
is created wholly in vitro and therefore, it totally eliminates animals from the production process.
It comprises of antibodies such as recombinant antibodies, non-immunoglobulin protein
scaffolds and nucleic acid aptamers (Ariful Kabir and Tanimoto, 2021). Because of the result of
them in vitro production method, the antigen acknowledgement place of artificial antibodies can
be concocted to any anticipated aim and might protracted outside the emblematic resistant range
provided by the natural antibodies. Therefore, it can be attributed that in comparison with the
antibodies which are formed from artificial exposure to antigens, antibodies being formed
through natural exposure to antigen are produced before the exposure of the foreign antigen or
pathogens.
Effects of the use of antibiotics in the control of disease
Before discussing about effects of use of antibiotics, it is important to understand about
antibiotics. In this regard, it can be said that it is a common medication that doctors describe with
the main aim of fighting bacteria. When it is being used as per the prescribed and effective
manner then it can fight certain infection as well as save lives. When immune system cannot kill
excessive harmful bacteria then antibiotics are prescribed. Hand washes also have antibacterial
power and it is the reason as people prefer buying hand washes that have high power to kill
bacteria. There are some examples of hand washes that have bacteria killing power such as: Clen
bacteria detergent and Shea butter body detergent. By comparing and on the basis of secondary
data, views of people, it is found that Clen bacteria detergent has more capacity to kill bacteria
than Shea butter (Nguyen and et.al., 2020). In this regard, it can be said that antibiotics plays a

vital role in killing bacteria and controlling disease. Antibiotics interfere with formation of
bacterial cell wall or its cell content. A bacteriostatic stops bacterium from multiplying. For
giving antibiotics, it is important for people to understand as whether they have bacterial
infection or viral infection. Accordingly, they can take antibiotics as per the prescribed manner.
By knowing diseases, people can know as whether they are suffering from viral infection or
bacterial infection. Viruses often cause upper respiratory tract infections like flu and common
cold and for such types of viral infection, antibiotics do not work.
Antibiotics mainly attack aerobic bacteria and some attacks un aerobic bacteria. Some
antibiotics attack aerobic bacteria and some attacks on anaerobic so, it is important for people to
take antibiotics in a prescribed manner so that they can protect themselves against severity of
diseases. In addition, it is found in this context that aerobic bacteria need oxygen and anaerobic
do not need oxygen. Antibiotics are being given for 2 main purpose such as: to prevent from
multiplying of bacteria and to treat an infection. Some certain bacterial infection for which
doctor may prescribe antibiotics include: urinary tract infection, strep throat and E coli. There are
some bacterial infections for which people do not need to take antibiotics as it can be treated
with other medicines and other ways. Some sinus infection and ear infection are 2 types of
bacterial infection in which people do not require to take antibiotics. Some other diseases that
can also be controlled by using antibiotics include: ear infection, whooping cough, skin infection,
kidney infection, bacterial pneumonia and others. So, on the basis of above discussed ways of
using antibiotics, it can be said that it can save lives and can prevent them from infectious
diseases (Sarkar and et.al., 2018). Some common antibiotics that are being prescribed by doctor
for preventing people from infection include: doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin and
azithromycin. All these antibiotics should also be taken in a prescribed manner otherwise; it may
cause number of side effects. Using antibiotics in an ineffective manner can affect both physical
and mental health.
Long term effects of overuse of antibiotics on pathogen resistance
Nowadays, number of germs that were responsive to antibiotics now have become more and
more resistant because of overuse of drugs and antibiotics. Before discussing side effects of
overuse of antibiotics, it is important to understand overuse as when people can know as whether
they are overusing antibiotics or not. In this context, it can be said that when people take
antibiotics more than prescribed manner. When people take antibiotics even when there is no

need. When people take antibiotics for small and non-serious infectious then these can
considered as overuse and at some point, people’s body resists to pathogen and it becomes
unable to kill bacteria. Due to overuse of antibiotics, people’s body resist to work in an effective
manner and in such cases people have to suffer from severe infectious diseases such as:
pneumococcal infections, tuberculosis and skin infections. In addition, it is also found from
secondary data that long term use of antibiotics may put people at risk factor of cardiovascular
mortality. It is also stated that taking 1 extra dose of antibiotics can cause people at serious harm.
It can increase chances of pain in stomach, being sick and diarrhoea. It has found in published
data that taking antibiotics for around 2 months in late adulthood can increase 27% increase in
risk of death (Mancuso and et.al., 2021). This link is stronger for women who takes antibiotics
for long run in the ages of 40 and 50. So, on the basis of this, it can clearly be said that over and
long term use of antibiotics can cause number of side effects and it can resist pathogens.
There are number of common side effects that people may suffer from if they take
antibiotics for long run and overuse such as: nausea, rash, vomiting, diarrhoea, upset stomach
and fungal infection of mouth, vagina and digestive tract. Overuse of antibiotics in the age of 40
and 50 may cause formation of kidney stone, abnormal blood clothing, blood disorder, sensitivity
to sunlight and others. Practitioners often prescribe antibiotics for sore throats but some types of
sore throats are not because of bacteria as they can be due to viruses. In some types of sore throat
problems, people do not need to be given or prescribed antibiotics. If they are being prescribed,
then it can also cause side effects.
Antibiotic resistance is one of the main risk of overuse of antibiotics. It is stated that by
using antibiotics to the great extent can increase the risk of bacteria becoming resistant to them.
Body stops working towards bacteria and in such cases, people have to suffer from severe
chronic disease. Antibiotics resistance infections can be serious to treat. There is a process and
ways of living antibiotics as when people quit or stop taking antibiotics then also it may affect
health (Malik and Bhattacharyya, 2019). In addition, it is also known that people must take full
prescribed course of antibiotics otherwise, it may cause problems. So, on the basis of this, it can
be said that people should take antibiotics only in a prescribed manner and only when they need
it.
In regard to efficiency of Clen bactericidal pump soap and Shea butter body detergent, it can
be said that both have antibiotics elements and it is the reason as they can kill bacteria. People

washes their hand because they touch unhygienic place and things and it may cause bacterial
infection. By washing hands, they can kill bacteria but they must buy hand washes that have
more bacteria killing power and antibacterial element. By comparison of both hand washes, it is
found that as compared to Shea butter hand wash, Clen detergent hand wash is better because it
can kill an average of 104 bacteria and Shea butter have an average of 81 which means this
number of bacteria can be killed by this hand wash. So, on the basis of this, it can be said that
comparison and statistical analysis plays a vital role in deciding the best one. It can improve their
decision making and overall it can be said that people should take antibiotics in a prescribed
manner when it is required.

REFERENCES
Books and journals
Agrawal, B., Singh, S. and Yanow, S., 2020. Heterologous Immunity: Implications and
Applications in Vaccines and Immunotherapies. Frontiers Media SA.
Ariful Kabir, K.M. and Tanimoto, J., 2021. Analysis of individual strategies for artificial and
natural immunity with imperfectness and durability of protection. Journal of Theoretical
Biology. 509. pp.110-531.
Born, W.K., Huang, Y. and Zeng, W., 2016. A special connection between γδ T cells and natural
antibodies? Arch Immunol Their Exp. 64. pp.455–462.
Karch, C.P. and Matyas, G.R., 2021. The current and future role of nanovaccines in HIV-1
vaccine development. Expert Review of Vaccines. 20(8). pp.935-944.
Kelly, H.G., Kent, S.J. and Wheatley, A.K., 2019. Immunological basis for enhanced immunity
of nanoparticle vaccines, Expert Review of Vaccines. 18(3). pp.269-280.
Liu, R.F. and et.al., 2018. A new mobile learning module using smartphone wallpapers in
identification of medical fungi for medical students and residents. International Journal
of Dermatology. 57(4). pp.458-462.
Malik, B. and Bhattacharyya, S., 2019. Antibiotic drug-resistance as a complex system driven by
socio-economic growth and antibiotic misuse. Scientific reports, 9(1), pp.1-12.
Mancuso, G. and et.al., 2021. Bacterial antibiotic resistance: the most critical
pathogens. Pathogens, 10(10), p.1310.
Nguyen, L.H. and et.al., 2020. Antibiotic use and the development of inflammatory bowel
disease: a national case-control study in Sweden. The lancet Gastroenterology &
hepatology, 5(11), pp.986-995.
Peng, P., Chen, Q. and Liu, E., 2020. The role of computational fluid dynamics tools on
investigation of pathogen transmission: Prevention and control. Science of The Total
Environment. 746. p.142090.
Rothstein, A.P., Byrne, A.Q., Knapp, R.A., Briggs, C.J., Voyles, J., Richards-Zawacki, C.L. and
Rosenblum, E.B., 2021. Divergent regional evolutionary histories of a devastating
global amphibian pathogen Proc. R. Soc. B. 288.
Sarkar, D.J. and et.al., 2018. Antibiotics in agriculture: use and impact.
Silverman, G.J., 2015. Protective natural autoantibodies to apoptotic cells: evidence of
convergent selection of recurrent innate-like clones. Ann N Y Acad Sci.1362. pp.164–
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