Exploring Body Defenses: Immune Responses, Clonal Selection, Antigens

This assignment delves into the intricacies of the human body's defense mechanisms. It begins with an analysis of the stages of blood clot formation, including the roles of vasoconstriction, platelet plugs, and essential factors like Vitamin K and platelets. The assignment then explores phagocytosis, detailing its process, benefits as a non-specific defense, and the implications of reduced phagocyte counts. Furthermore, it differentiates between auto-antigens and hetero-antigens, and evaluates the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, along with the clonal selection hypothesis and its impact on immunological memory. The document also discusses the benefits and limitations of active and passive vaccines. The assignment covers key concepts in immunology and provides insights into how the body protects itself from various threats.

Questions- Body
Defenses

Contents
MAIN BODY..................................................................................................................................1
2.2A stages of blood clot formation to a patient..........................................................................1
2.3a) Analyse how phagocytises occurs in the human body and identify the benefits of this
non-specific defense....................................................................................................................2
B) The number of phagocytes in the patient’s body is significantly lower than the normal
range. Identify the condition this patient could be diagnosed with.............................................2
3.1a) Differentiate between auto antigens and hetro-antigens.....................................................3
3.2a) Evaluate the concept of the humoral and the cell-mediated immune response..................3
3.3a) Evaluate the clonal selection hypothesis, including how immunological memory benefits
the human body, but also how it can also impact the body negatively.......................................4
3.4 A Discuss the benefits and limitations of both ideas proposed by these scientists...............4
3.4b) Compare naturally acquired active and naturally acquired passive immunity and the
benefits of each............................................................................................................................5
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................6

MAIN BODY
2.2A stages of blood clot formation to a patient
Homeostasis includes three steps that occur in a rapid sequence it includes vascular spasm,
formation of the platelet plug and the blood clotting which assists in re-enforcing the platelet
plug. Vasoconstriction is been considered as central blood clotting tendency, it assists in
preventing the clotting in body. It also helps in coagulation cascade to stop. In this a reflexive
contraction occurs which causes a decrease in the area of blood clot. Platelet plug is been formed
after the blood vessel is been ruptured, this stage of blood clot increases. It is been seen within
after 20 seconds of the injury. It also includes various specific factors such as:
Vitamin K: Vitamin K assists in regulating the process of blood clotting by taking into account
certain coagulation factors. It has been analysed that without Vitamin K, body will be unable to
form the clotting related to blood. If this stage appears than blood volume will be lose. In order
to prevent this extreme scenario Vitamin K needs to be ingested in body. It must be metabolized
and utilized to create the mature coagulation factors. In the primary haemostatic blood platelet is
been formed around the injured blood vessel (Taylor, 2018). In this protein mesh is been created.
Most of these factors are produced by liver cells, and it turns out that producing coagulation
factors II, VII, IX, and X requires an enzyme that uses vitamin K. It has also been analysed that
Vitamin K can be gained in an individual’s body by consuming green leafy foods such as
spinach. It is necessary for controlling the volume of body. Vitamin K is also been used and
utilized by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract as a metabolism byproduct.
Platelets: Platelets form the plug outside the border of injury and it is been known as the primary
haemostatic. They can be changed from round to spiny and also releases protein when the human
body faces injury. If there is an abnormality faced by any part of the system there can be
excessive bleeding and also body can face high amount of clotting. This can be dangerous.
Clotting needs to be better as poor clotting can lead to excessive blood clot. In this process there
can be contraction of blood vessels. When the blood vessel is damaged then it releases and
activates platelets so that it get sticks to the injured area. This is the factor which can affect
clotting of blood.
Air: The blood which is been releases after the injury must be escaped so that it can be
converted into a clot. The blood plasmas consists of proteins which is been released when the
injury is been faced by the human body. It has been analysed that air factor is been included in
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the process of clot formation. Bleeding also causes a domino effect and the steps are been
included in the set of motion, it is a series of step.
2.3a) Analyse how phagocytises occurs in the human body and identify the benefits of this non-
specific defense
The phagocytises can be seen in lung, liver, spleen and nymph nodes. It can also be seen in
all the tissues and it appears as the wandering amoeboid cells. These cells are basically been
involved in protecting the human body by ingesting out the harmful foreign particles, bacteria
dead or dying cells. There are various type of white cells which are also been linked with the
phagocytises. When these cells come in contact with the bacteria, the receptors may bind them.
Pathogens inside the body is also been killed by some pathogens. They are also been involved in
killing of the microbes. The oxygen dependent production also assists the cells in killing the
bacteria.
It has also been analyse that phagocytises is beneficial for the ingestion purpose and also
it is been used for ingesting out the harmful particles. In this the dead or dying cells are been
removed by the phagocytises (Kristiansen, 2016). It has also been analyze that it can also assist
in binding of the receptors in the human body. It is also significant to the cellular immunity.
B) The number of phagocytes in the patient’s body is significantly lower than the normal range.
Identify the condition this patient could be diagnosed with
It has been analysed that the significant number of phagocytes is lower in patient’s body,
so there are chances that patient can be diagnosed with the disease. Various infectious disease
can be faced by patients of it is lower than the normal range in human body. It can lay severe
negative impact on health outcome of an individual and also can affect their well being. The
peripheral blood is transferred into the infected tissues and it can make patient face more disease
because of which their health outcome can be affected. Allergic asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease can be faced by the patient if the number of phagocytes is lower than the
normal range in any type of human body. The low pH disrupts the normal metabolism of many
bacteria and fungi and because of this the patient can face from problem of fungal infection and
it can also affect their well being. It has also been analysed that lower than the normal range can
also make patient weak and also it can affect their well-being (Banhuk and et.al., 2018).
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3.1a) Differentiate between auto antigens and hetro-antigens
Hetro-antigens are also known as foreign antigens and auto-antigens is known as self
antigens. Hetro-antigen is been defined as an antibody which is been produced by an individual
of one specie and is also capable of responding to an immune response. These are the functions
of hetro antigens. They are also been engaged in fighting the body infection consisting of the
white cells. In this antigen there is an immune response to other species. In this the antibodies are
also been made of the protein. Phagocytosis is been created by the help of this.
Antigens are also known as immunoglobulins. In this they fight against the infection and
also it assists in fighting against the foreign substances. This antigen is been used to fight against
the infection. If not been done than there are chances that well being of patient will be affected
by this. Antigens can be bacteria, fungi, virus. This can lower down the health and well being of
any patient or individual. Antigen is also specific combination of the antibodies, it helps in
fighting against the infectious disease. The process of combining is known as agglutination.
3.1B labelling of the figure
Light chains: It has been analysed that light chains joined together by a single disulfide bond.
One heavy and one light chain pair combine to form the antigen binding site of the antibody.
Disulfide bond: The disulfide bond also assists in fighting against the infections and also assists
in reducing the flow of blood.
Heavy chain: This chain differs in size and it has two regions the constant and variable region.
Both the regions have different functions.
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3.2a) Evaluate the concept of the humoral and the cell-mediated immune response
The humoral immune system is basically included in dealing with the pathogens and the
antigens. These are been freely moving outside the infected part of the human body. Cellular
immunity can be seen inside the infected cells. It is been coordinated by the T lymphocytes. The
pathogens are also been expressed on surface of cells. It can be considered as antigen presenting
cells. Cell mediated immunity is the response in which the antibodies are not been included in it.
It is basically been considered as is the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-
lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. It assists in fighting
from the infected cells and also it fight against the antigens and the pythogens which is been
engaged in process of fighting against the infected cells. It is basically the tiny amount of protein
which is been extracted from the infected cells and this is been extracted from the bacteria and
also been injected into the skin. The red nodules are been developed at the sites which are been
infected. It is been developed at the site of injection. The humoral immune systems are freely
circulating with pathogens and the antigens. The pathogens can be seen in the surface of cells. It
is also used in making the growth of infection stop in the human body. The immune response can
be broken into the four phrases (Thompson and et.al., 2019). In this the B and T cells are also
activated during this process. They get activated by coming in contact with antigen. Cell
mediated immunity is the response in which the antibodies are not been included in it. Immunity
is long lasting as it is being produced by one’s own body and they have capacity to fight against
the bacteria.
3.3a) Evaluate the clonal selection hypothesis, including how immunological memory benefits
the human body, but also how it can also impact the body negatively
clonal selection hypothesis is the theory which basically explains the functions of cells. It is in
the response to specific antigens fighting infections in the body. In this there is proliferation of
the clone daughter cells is also been included. In this process single T and B cells assists in
recognizing the antigen. The different antigens are been used to reproduced and regenerate a
clonal cell population. It is necessary for fighting against the infected cells. Immunological
memory is basically the memory of immune system of human body, which is been engaged in
quickly identifying and recognizing the antigen which was previously been encountered by the
body. This system is been involved in saving the body from the previous infection which was
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been identified. This assists in saving the body and human body from previously infected cells. It
also develop the immune response to same antigens. It is used for fighting against the pathogens
and antigens of human body which is really necessary. The different antigens are been used to
reproduced and regenerate a clonal cell population. It is necessary for fighting against the
infected cells. It has also been analysed and evaluated that negative emotions can also affected
the immune system and weaken their working. A patient can feel weak when the negative
emotions are been bounded on to them. It has also been analysed that the emotions and stress
adversely affect the immune system and can weaken the body of an individual. In this the stress
can adversely affect the immune system and also there are chances that because of this they may
not be able to fight against the infection.
3.4 A Discuss the benefits and limitations of both ideas proposed by these scientists
Scientist has thought of making use of active and passive vaccines for the treatment of novel
corona virus. It has been analysed that there are benefits and limitations for the both the vaccines
which is going to be used by the scientists. Active vaccine is basically that which when given to
the patient gears their immune system up and also it can set up the series of reaction inside the
body (Xiong And et.al., 2017). The passive vaccine is been created with the antibodies which has
been created after person has suffered from the disease and also with the help of antibodies
which is been created inside of the body. Passive immunization comes from the antibodies which
is been formed by the preformed antibodies. It has also been analysed that vaccine provide active
immunity to the disease which has been faced by the patient.
3.4b) Compare naturally acquired active and naturally acquired passive immunity and the
benefits of each
Naturally active and naturally acquired passive immunity is beneficial for the human body.
In the active immunization the body gears up with the help of vaccine and also it assists in
fighting against the disease. In this patient gears their immune system up and also it can set up
the series of reaction inside the body. In the passive immunization it has been analysed that the
body is been able to fight from the disease with the help of the antibodies developed inside.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Xiong, S. And et.al., 2017. Ultrasensitive direct competitive FLISA using highly luminescent
quantum dot beads for tuning affinity of competing antigens to antibodies. Analytica
Chimica Acta, 972, pp.94-101.
Banhuk, F.W. and et.al., 2018. Relationships among antibodies against extractable nuclear
antigens, antinuclear antibodies, and autoimmune diseases in a Brazilian public
hospital. Autoimmune diseases, 2018.
Taylor, F.R., 2018. Antigens and antibodies in disease with specifics about CGRP
immunology. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 58, pp.230-237.
Kristiansen, T., 2016. Matrix-bound antigens and antibodies. Affinity chromatography, pp.191-
206.
Thompson, J.S. and et.al., 2019. Granulocyte and monocyte antigens and antibodies. HLA
Typing: Methodology and Clinical Aspects, 2.
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