Cancer: Diagnosis, Staging, Treatment, Nursing Care and Support

This essay provides a comprehensive overview of cancer, beginning with its increasing global burden and prevalence in the United States. It delves into the processes of cancer diagnosis and staging, highlighting the importance of early detection and the TNM staging system. The essay then explores complications associated with cancer treatment, including physical and psychological effects, and discusses effective methods for managing these challenges, such as cognitive behavioral therapy and educational interventions. It also examines factors contributing to cancer incidence and mortality rates in Americans, focusing on breast and lung cancer. Furthermore, the role of the American Cancer Society in education and support is reviewed, alongside the application of the nursing care process in providing holistic care to cancer patients. Finally, the essay emphasizes the importance of undergraduate nursing education in preparing nurses to work with cancer patients, concluding with a summary of the key insights presented throughout the paper.

Running head: CANCER
Cancer Name of the student:
Name of the University:
Author’s note

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Introduction:
The burden of cancer is increasing worldwide and it has become the second leading cause
of death globally. The common cancers currently prevalent in the world include cancer of the
lungs, breast, colorectal, prostate and stomach (World Health Organization, 2018). Cancer is
highly prevalent in United States too and review of statistics on increase in burden of cancer is
necessary to understand the role of policy makers, researchers and health professionals in
addressing the challenges associated with diagnosis. As the burden of cancer needs to be reduced
through early detection of cancer, this paper evaluates the diagnostics and cancer staging process
and evaluates the factors contributing to various types of cancer in Americans. The paper
reviews the role of the American Cancer society in raising awareness about cancer and extending
support to affected individuals. The paper also discusses about the nursing process to deliver
holistic and patient focused care to cancer patients.
Describe the diagnosis and staging of cancer:
Early diagnosis is crucial for recovery from cancer and reducing sufferings for people.
The diagnosis of cancer starts with a cancer screening where a complete history and physical
assessment of patient is done followed by diagnostic testing. The purpose of such screening is to
detect asymptomatic cancer whose treatment can extend life of patient (Marcus et al., 2015).
Different types of diagnostic procedures for cancer included biopsy, imaging, endoscopic
examination and test for tumor markers. The advantage of diagnostic testing is that these tests
help to confirm or rule out the cancer, evaluate disease progression and types of treatment
needed. In addition to these diagnostic tests, blood test, complete blood count, urinalysis and

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tumor markers are some common laboratory test to diagnose various types of cancer (Wilt,
Harris & Qaseem, 2015).
Cancer staging is the second step following the diagnosis of cancer, which an important
pathway to aid in understanding the extent of growth of cancer. Cancer staging is done by
various laboratory tests and the significance of cancer staging is that it helps to assess prognosis
of cancer and understand the severity of cancer ((National Cancer Institute, 2015). The staging
systems for cancer differ in different countries. All staging system gives information regarding
the location and size of the tumor, the cell type of cancer, assessment of spread of cancer to
different parts and the grading of tumour. TNM (Tumor, lymph node, metastasis) is the staging
system most commonly used for different types of cancer. The T in the TNM denotes the size
and location of the main tumor, N refers to the number of lymph nodes and M refers to status of
metastasized cancer. Based on the staging system, cancer is categorized in to five types starting
from stage 0 to stage IV. Hence, TNM is the standardized classification system for evaluating
cancer. More recently, the American Joint Committee of Cancer (AJCC) staging manual has
become a standard system for classification of patients with cancer (Amin et al., 2017).
Complications associated with cancer treatment:
Diagnosis of cancer and its treatment is associated with many types of complications.
This may classified are direct or indirect complications because of the effects of a tumor. One of
the complications includes systematic manifestation of the disease such as immume suppression
and hypercoagulability. Other two major complications include nervous system complications
and bleeding related issues in the gastrointestinal system. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and

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surgery are some common treatment modalities for curing cancer and these treatments are
associated with different side effects too. For example, in chemotherapy, certain cytotoxic drugs
are used to kill or reduce the growth of cancer cells. However, this is associated with several side
effects. Short term side effects include cognitive changes, hair loss, weight issues, nausea and
vomiting and body image issues due to physical changes in the body. In addition, long term side
effects of cancer treatment include fertility issue, hearing loss and damage to the heart (Miller et
al., 2016).. Hence, cancer and its treatment is associated with various physical and emotional
issues for affected individuals. The side effects of chemotherapy have significant effects on the
quality of life of patient as it affect daily activities, employment, sexual life and mental health of
patient (Lorusso et al., 2017).
From the above discussion, it is clear that cancer treatment is associated with significant
effect on both physical and mental health outcomes. Apart from changes in different system of
the body due to cancer treatment, most cancer patient suffer from multiple psychological
symptoms too. They are highly likely to have higher rates of anxiety and depression compared to
other patients. Most effective methods that have been used to address psychological symptoms of
depression, anxiety and hopelessness includes use of education, coping skills training, hypnosis,
cognitive behavioural approach and relaxation technique. These methods are also useful to help
patients cope with physical effects of cancer. Combining psychological and behavioural
treatments for cancer along with biological treatment is important to optimize effect of other
cancer treatment too. CBT is a widely used approach for cancer patient and it is effective in the
management of depression and other psychosocial issue associated with diagnosis and treatment.
In addition, educational intervention works to enhance self efficacy or improve confidence of
patients in fighting with cancer (Syrjala et al., 2014). Badr et al. (2015) explains that learning

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adaptive coping techniques can improve psychological adjustment to cancer too. In this area, the
utility of psychosocial intervention is realized as it leads reduction in distress level and improves
adherence to treatment too. The above finding implies that integration of multi-professional care
provider is crucial to overcome both physical and psychological effects of cancer and improve
survival rate for cancer patient.
Factors contributing to the yearly incidence and mortality rates of various cancers in
Americans:
The burden of cancer in United States is understood from the number of new cases and
cancer related deaths occurring per year. According to National Cancer Institute (2017), the
number of new cases of cancer diagnosed in United States per year is 439.2 per 100, 000 men
and women. The number of cancer related death is 163.5 per 100, 000 men and the cancer
mortality is found to differ based on gender, race or ethnicity. For example, cancer mortality is
higher among men compared to women. In addition, the mortality rate is higher in African men
compared to Asian women. The most common cancer prevalent among American based on new
cases detected (in descending order) include breast cancer, lung and bronchus cancer, prostate
cancer, colon cancer and skin cancer. Hence, identifying the factors contributing to annual
incidence and mortality rates of different types of cancers in Americans is necessary.
Breast cancer is the most commonly form of cancer found in Americans and risk factors
of breast cancer mostly increases with aging, sex, early menarche, late child bearing, gene
mutation, family history and unhealthy lifestyle (Sun et al., 2017). According to Kamińska et al.
(2015), sex, age and genetic makeup are individual factors that lead to breast cancer. Other
extrinsic risk factor includes impact of lifestyle and diet on the neoplastic process. Compared to

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men, the number of care of breast cancer is significantly higher in men compared to women. The
prevalence of breast cancer is increasing every year in America. However, the rate of mortality is
decreasing due to early screening and advanced medical therapies. Breast cancer occurs because
of the involvement of multiple cell types and early diagnosis is the best approach to treat cancer
and increase survival rate (Sun et al., 2017). In addition, the number of new cases of lung cancer
is high in United States because of the high rate of cigarette smoking. Cigarette smoking is
linked to occurrence of 80 to 90 of lung cancer mortality (CDC, 2019). On the whole, both
individual and life style factors increase the risk factors of various cancer in America.
Role of the American Cancer Society in education and support:
The American Cancer Society (ACS) is an organization whose core purpose is to increase
awareness about cancer symptoms, treatment and prevention and compile cancer related
statistics. Its mission is to be the nationwide community-based voluntary health organization that
is focussed on eliminating cancer by preventing cancer and reducing sufferings for affected
individual through research, education and appropriate service. By volunteering to educate
people regarding cancer, they provided best support to help people fight with the disease. One of
the ACS service that is recommended for people diagnosed with cancer in Australia includes the
‘Relay for Life’ service that invites cancer survivors to celebrate their triumph and inform the
public about cancer. The health promotion activities of ACS focus on public education for cancer
prevention and patient education for best cancer treatment (Wender et al., 2013).
Utilization of the nursing care process to provide safe and effective care to cancer patients:
The five nursing process that is required to provide patient-centred care includes
assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation and evaluation. Assessment is the first step of

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the nursing process which required use of critical thinking skills to collect appropriate subjective
and objective data from patient. This is followed by formulation of nursing diagnosis employing
clinical judgment to develop appropriate plan of care. The third stage of the nursing process is
the planning stage where nurses formulate goals and outcomes relevant to the key problems to
directly influence patient care. These care plans should be patient-focused and tailored to the
individual needs of patient. The fourth nursing process is the implementation of the care plans
and application of the intervention in actual practice. Nurses complete the care process by
completing the final step of evaluation, which involves critical analysis of the outcomes of the
intervention and assessing whether desired outcomes has been met or not (Tammy, Toney &
Jennifer, 2019).. Based, on this evaluation, nurses can reassess patient and new care plan if
symptoms persist. Or else, the care process is completed when the patient achieves full recovery.
Nurses utilize the same nursing process as described above to manage cancer patient.
Oncology nurse assess physical and emotional status of cancer patients along with collection of
data related to past health history and lifestyle of patient. After completing assessment process,
they collaborate with oncologist to be aware about diagnosis, expected outcomes and possible
complications for patient. During the planning phase, active discussion takes placed regarding all
laboratory, pathology and imaging results of cancer patient. Finally care plan is prepared by
assessment of patient’s understanding of the disease and addressing compliance related barrier to
care. The crucial aspect of a holistic care plan is that it prioritizes not only required therapy and
pharmacological treatment for cancer patient, bust also improving patient’s understanding about
disease and addressing psychological outcomes associated with diagnosis and treatment. During
the implementation stage, nurses face challenges as they need to deal with numerous symptoms
of patient (Rieger & Yarbro, 2017). However, they evaluate the problems and engage in

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initiation of new interventions in response to treatment side-effects and other symptoms
emerging during the course of treatment. Hence, holistic nursing care fir cancer patient focus on
pain control, alleviating side-effects of therapies, promoting patient compliance and overall
comfort.
Role of undergraduate education in preparing nurse to work with patients:
The degree that nursing acquire in their undergraduate education is crucial for developing
their knowledge in nursing theories and process and utilizing them effectively during patient
care. In United States, there are several educational pathways to become an entry level licensed
nurse. The Bacccalaureate nursing programs focus on liberal arts, advanced sciences and nursing
course work to help nurse acquire both leadership skills as well as community and public health
competencies. The theoretical knowledge gained during this stage plays a crucial role in their
ability to provide holistic and high quality care to cancer patients (Redman et al., 2015).
Conclusion:
To summarize, the paper gives the insight that the incidence of cancer is increasing in
United States and it is associated with serious economic impact because of the cost associated
with treatment. The review of cancer treatment and diagnosis procedure gives the insight that
people affected by cancer are burdened by negative physical as well as psychological outcomes.
Nurses play a critical role in assessment, planning, implementation and evaluation of effective
interventions to promote recovery of patients.

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