Cell Structure, Metabolism, and Growth: A Detailed Biological Report

This report provides a detailed analysis of cell structure, metabolism, and growth. It begins with an overview of cell characteristics, comparing and contrasting prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and discussing the impact of viruses. The report then delves into eukaryotic sub-cellular structures and organelles. Section 2 focuses on cellular metabolism, examining the role of the cell membrane in nutrient regulation and waste removal, the use of nutrients for energy in animal cells, and the roles of nucleic acids in the nucleus and cytoplasm, including protein synthesis. Section 3 explores cell growth and division, covering the generation of specialized tissues from embryonic stem cells, the importance of interphase, factors initiating cell division, and how genetic information is maintained during cell division.

Running head: UNDERSTANDING THE CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
UNDERSTANDING THE CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND
CELL GROWTH
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author Note:

1CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Introduction
The cell is the membrane-bound unit that contains the main functional molecules of life.
Living organelles are present in the cell, and it helps in the building blocks of molecular
organisms like humans and other animals. The animal body or the plant body is composed of
fundamental functional units known as microscopic cells. A number of organisms are made
of single-cell; on the other hand, multicellular organisms are composed of multiple cells. A
single-cell organism is known as unicellular or acellular such as amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
and Acetabidaria. Typically, cells are classified into three main types: stem cells, post-mitotic
cells, and dedifferentiated cells (Anderson, 2015, p. 1723). Differentiated cells are
specialized, which return to the undifferentiated zone to take over the work of the division.
Dedifferentiation helps in healing the wounds and vegetative propagation in cells. Eukaryotes
are multicellular, have a cell of size between 5-100 μm. Among all cells, muscle and nerve
cells are comparatively larger. In the case of plants, algae contain large cells as compared to
others. Typically eggs are large size cells that provide food for the development of the
embryo. The human egg is 0.1mm in diameter. Plant cell contains a cell wall and protoplast,
whereas no cell wall is present in the animal cell. It is differentiated into the plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and vacuoles. The cytoplasm is divided into a cytoplasmic
matrix and endoplasmic reticulum (Threadgold, 2017). Cells are generally classified into two
types: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are found in bacteria, and eukaryotes are
observed in plants and animals. A eukaryotic cell contains a nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi
body, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, centriole, vesicle, lysosome, and ribosome. The cell
membrane is present in the eukaryotic cell, which comprises of phospholipids and proteins.
The phospholipid bilayer is found to work as the fluid mosaic model (Turlier, 2018, p. 114).
ATP is the primary energy source of the cell and is produced in the mitochondria. Cell

2CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
metabolism refers to the different set of chemical reactions, which occurs in the cell. Cell
gain nutrients and energy from the food that is consumed by the animal. Foods are digested in
the animal body through different organelles, which provide nutrients to the cell. Cell
division is significant, and it is fragmented into some phases: G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase,
and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).
Discussion
Section 1
Living cells have eight important characteristics. First, ingestion is a system to absorb
through cell boundaries or chemical release in the regions. Two, assimilation, is a system in
which a series of conversions of ingested food into the chemical substances takes place,
which is referred to become a biochemical pathway. The release of energy converted into
ATP is an example of assimilation. Third, growth, which is the result of assimilation that
occurs through repairing the parts of the body (Shrimal, 2019, p. 288). Fourth, reproduction
means the production of more individual cells like self. Fifth, elimination refers to the release
of the unused materials or toxic substances, which are converted into molecules by the cell.
Sixth, Responsiveness means to respond to the environment that is a type of reaction.
Seventh, coordination is a complex metabolic reaction that happens with the inhibitors.
Characteristics Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent Present
Cell type Normally unicellular Normally multicellular

3CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present
Genetics Partial transfer  Meiosis
 Fusion of gametes
Example  Archaea
 Bacteria
 Plant
 Animal
Microtubules Absent Present
Mitochondria Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Lysosomes and peroxisomes Absent Present
Cytoskeleton Absent/Rare Present
Ribosomes Smaller (70s) Larger (80s)
DNA wrapping on Proteins Different proteins react with
each other to fold the DNA
or genetic material and
Eukaryotes are wrapped
their DNA or genetic
material around the proteins,

4CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
condense prokaryotic DNA
or prokaryotic genetic
material.
and that protein is known as
histone.
Golgi Apparatus Absent Present
Chloroplast The Chloroplast is absent,
and chlorophyll spread
within the cytoplasm.
It is observed in plants.
Cell wall Present. Present in plant cells and a
simpler form.
Cell size 1-10um 10-100um
Membrane permeability Absent Selective
Table 1: Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Source: (Marinov, 2016, p. 667)
Viruses are never considered as neither eukaryotes nor prokaryotes because they have
no characteristics like that of living things. However, they can replicate within liv
(Bellincampi, 2014) (Bellincampi, 2014)ing organisms because, due to lack of eukaryotic cell

5CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
or prokaryotic cell, they cannot replicate and reproduce outside of the living cell. Two
microbiologists, Schleiden and Schwann, who demonstrated the structure and characteristics
of cells, described cell theory in 1839. The cell wall is a rigid layer, which is also a non-living
being found outside of the cell membrane. Cell walls are observed in plants, fungi, and
bacteria (Bellincampi, 2014, p. 228). In the case of a plant, cellulose is the primary
component of the cell wall. There are three layers present which supports and helps the plant
as a structural framework. The cell wall gives plant cells an equal shape and offers support to
the plant body.
Figure 1: Structure of the living cell
The plasma membrane is another name of the cell membrane. Cell membrane divides
the intracellular space from the outer environment (outer part of the cell) and is present in
both plant cell and animal cell. The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm and helps in
protecting the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is present in the protoplasm. The cell membrane is
composed of the lipid bilayer, which is also called as phospholipids. Phospholipids are
composed of a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. The hydrophilic head is water-

6CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
loving, and the hydrophobic means water avoiding, the hydrophobic tail is water avoiding
(Goni, 2014, p. 1467). The polar parts try to create hydrogen bonds with water, while the
non-polar tails try to get away from the water and water solution. This problem is resolved
through the creation of a bilayer because the hydrophilic heads can target outwards and create
hydrogen bonds with water, and the hydrophobic tails focus towards one another and are
protected from the water molecules.
Figure 2: Structure of the cell membrane
The transfer between the cell and its environment has to go through the cell
membrane. The cell membrane is specifically permeable to few specific ions, small
molecules, and larger molecules and controls the motion of substances. Many functions such
as diffusion, osmosis, transport of nutrients are performed within the cell (Encarnacao, 2017,
p. 400). The cell membrane is strong and flexible in nature. It provides support to the cell
and flexibility, thus, helps to grow and move. S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson discovered the
Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane. Fluid Mosaic Model demonstrates the basic
structure of the cell membrane as a fluid-structure with different protein components and
carbohydrate compounds diffusing across the membrane (Nicolson, 2014, p. 1451).

7CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 3: Phospholipid bilayer
Cell membrane proteins are found crossing the membrane from the inner division to
the outer division of the cell. The membrane proteins consist of a hydrophilic and
hydrophobic area, which allow proteins to pass suitable into the cell membrane. Membrane
protein works as a carrier protein and restricts the motion of the ion and molecule over the
cell membrane. Glycoproteins are observed on the extracellular space of the cell membrane,
which is also linked to polypeptide chains. It the case of a cell-to-cell recognition,
glycoproteins are used and is most) suitable (Anderson, 2015, p. 1723) Glycolipids are
attached to phospholipids on the outer surface of the cell membrane. It works as the
recognition site for specified chemicals and is important in cell-to-cell linkage to form
tissues. The motion of substances over cell membranes is hugely beneficial as it allows cells
to obtain oxygen and nutrients, remove waste products, and control the number of required
substances in the cell. The significant processes by which such motion and transportation take
place include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport (Ayala, 2014, p.
3).

8CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 4: Osmosis, passive transport, active transport
Name of the cell organelles Description Function
Cytoplasm  Jelly like
substance
 Consist of
90% water
 Contains
nutrient and
waste
substance
 Nourishes the
cell by
proving salt
and sugar.
 Provide
turgor
pressure to
control the
shape of the
cell
 Cell division
and protein
synthesis
occur in it.
 Act as a
storage
Nucleus  Contains cell’s
genetic material
 Nuclear envelop,
nuclear pores,
chromatin and
nucleolus are present
 Control the gene
expression
 Helps in DNA
replication
 Producing mRNA

9CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
in it.  Transcribing DNA
 Helps in ribosomal
RNA synthesis
 Transmitted genetic
material is conserved
into the nucleus.
Mitochondria  Found in eukaryotic
cell
 Outer mitochondrial
membrane,
intermembrane
space, inner
mitochondrial
membrane, cristae,
matrix are present in
the mitochondria
(Richter-Dennerlein,
2016, p. 471)
 Mitochondria
generate the energy
by releasing the
energy stored in
molecules from food
and using it to use
ATP
Endoplasmic reticulum  Found in eukaryotic
cells
 It has a double
membrane
 Smooth ER is
attached to the
synthesis of lipids,
phospholipids, and

10CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
 A hollow tube,
flattened sheets, and
round sacs are
present in ER
 Two types of ER:
Smooth ER and
Rough ER
steroids. It helps in
the metabolism of
carbohydrates.
 Rough ER performed
protein synthesis and
help in membrane
production.
Ribosomes  Ribosome occurs in
the cytoplasm.
 Composed of RNA
and protein
 When plasma
membrane attached
with a free ribosome
known as
polyribosome.
 Protein synthesis
occurs in the
ribosome
 Helps in protein
production
Golgi body  The Golgi body
consists of cisternae
 Cisternae consists of
an enzyme
 It helps to transport
the protein from
protein synthesis are
to where protein is
required in the cell

11CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Vesicles and lysosomes  Membrane-bound
spherical sac
 Small
 Lysosomes are made
by Golgi body
 The lysosome
contains digestive
enzymes
 Vesicles help in
transportation of
molecules within the
cell
 When a cell dies,
then lysosome
secrets the enzyme
which digest the cell
 The digestive
enzyme helps to
digest the food, such
as carbohydrates and
protein.
Vacuole  Fluid-filled organelle
 Membrane-bound
 Occur in the
cytoplasm
 Absent in plant cell
 Contains cell sap
(sugar, amino acid,
minerals, salt)
 Helps in the
digestion
 Excretion of cellular
waste
 Releases water by
osmosis
 Maintaining the plant
cell shape.
Centrioles  Cylindrical tube-like  Centrosome helps in

12CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
structure
 Specially present in
the animal cell Two
perpendicular
centrioles refer to as
centrosome
cell division.
Plastids  Plastids are only
found in plant
 It contains
leucoplasts,
chloroplasts, and
chromoplasts.
 It helps in energy
production
 It works as storage.
Table 2: Different organelle present in the cell
Section 2
Cellular metabolism is defined as the occurrence of several chemical reactions, which
take place in living organisms in a systematic order to maintain and control life. The
metabolic pathway allows plants to grow, maintain their structure, and respond to the
environment. Different enzymes are used in cellular metabolism, and the sequence of
enzymes in a specified manner helps in the transformation of one chemical to another

13CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
chemical. Cellular metabolism is classified into two types: anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is a metabolic process in which a cell uses the energy to produce enzymes and
nucleic acids. Catabolism is a process in which cells break down the complex molecules. The
cell membrane also called a fragile plasma membrane, and its role is to bear the cell and help
to control the substances that can get in and out. It is partially permeable that allows some
materials to pass through the cell membrane. Phospholipid bilayer and different types of
membrane proteins are present in the cell membrane. Phospholipids layers are continuously
moving and help to create many pores. Small particles pass through the tiny pores by the
process of diffusion and osmosis. Different types of proteins have a different kind of role in
cellular metabolism. Some proteins have small pores, which allow diffusion of small
particles; therefore, these play an essential role in facilitated diffusion, whereas some work as
enzymes (Ott, 2016, p. 77). Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the cell membrane. The
plasma membrane can manage the particles that enter and exits the cell, thus facilitating the
motion of particles through the membrane, which can be either passive or active. The cell
membrane is a selective filter, which helps in the selection and filtration of substances, and
through this way, cell membrane intakes, the nutrient and remove the waste (Cordeiro, 2014,
p. 438).

14CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 5: Phospholipid layer
Source: (Ott, Amunts and Brown 2016)
The nutrients like sugar and different amino acids enter the cell resulting in products
of metabolism that depart from the cell. Those molecules transmitted through protein
channels in facilitated diffusion and pumped over the membrane through trans-membrane
transporters. Proteins from the protein channel are known as permeases (Sanchón J1, 2018, p.
486). Permeases are usually specific and transport only a few limited food or chemical
substances. Endocytosis is the process in that cells absorb specific chemical molecules.

15CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 6: Endocytosis

16CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Nutrients are usually obtained from the foods human intake and are the source of
nourishment. Foods are metabolized by specific cells to give energy and build tissue.
Vitamins and minerals are important nutrients that animals consume. The animal body needs
nutrients for growth and development and uses the energy for the process of metabolism of
food. Energy is used for the breakdown of the food by the process of cellular respiration
(Ruchi Gaur, 2014, p. 27). In general, animals gain energy from the food they consume, and
animals use that energy for their body functions. Glucose present in the food, which is eaten
animals, are broken down at the time of the process of respiration and converted into an
energy source called ATP. Excess ATP and glucose are present in the food; the liver converts
that glucose into a molecule known as glycogen. ATP is used to produce organic compounds

17CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
that are beneficial for animal cells. Skeletal muscle converts the glycogen to glucose, and this
conversion happens during exercise (fermentation process).
Figure 7: Digestive system
Source: (Escobar and Snyman 2016)
Figure 8: Carbohydrate metabolism

18CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Source: (Kohen 2014)
Vitamins are classified into two categories: water-soluble vitamin and fat-soluble
vitamin. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream, and the colon helps to
absorb the water. Water absorption occurs after entering of undigested food in the small
intestine. Waste material is removed from the anus through the peristaltic movements of the
rectum. Nucleic acids are the most important substances of the living cell. Nucleic acids
contain genetic material and information of the cell. It is mainly macromolecules, which can
produce protein. The nucleic acid is composed of nucleotides; DNA and RNA are present in
the nucleic acid. Nucleic acid helps in cell division and protein synthesis. Every nucleic acid
is made up of a long chain of nucleotides. Furthermore, nucleotides are made up of a pentose
sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base (Oh N1, 2014, p. 77). Nucleic acids, like DNA
and RNA, transfer the genetic information to the offspring. DNA has a helical structure with
the double-strand, which is connected by the hydrogen bond. RNA is single-stranded and
helps in protein synthesis. mRNA (messenger RNA) is copied from the DNA gets transferred
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. It contains information due to the fabrication of proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes and is present at the site of protein
synthesis. Amino acids are carried by the transfer RNA (tRNA), and microRNA controls the
use of mRNA, which used for protein synthesis. In protein synthesis, cells produce new
proteins (Mente, 2014, p. 1). Translation, a part of the biosynthesis pathway and protein
synthesis, is divided into several steps.

19CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 9: Peptide synthesis
Source: (Brar and Weissman 2015)
Section 3
The human embryonic stem cell is immortal, having unlimited growth potency and is
derived from the embryo. In most of the cases, they are derived from the embryo that
develops from the eggs fertilized in an in-vitro manner or in in-vitro fertilization clinic that is
specifically used for research purposes (Zhou Q1, 2016, p. 330). These pluripotent stem cells
have a large number of possibilities to become renewable replacement sources of cells as well
as tissues and help in treating a wide range of disorders that are thought to be incurable in
nature. The diseases in which it can be used are amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s
disease, heart disorders, spinal cord injury, arthritis, and diabetes. The cells derived from the
inner cell mass of the blastocyst, which is the preliminary stage of embryo implantation.
According to, when a human embryo reaches stage 4 or 5 days after fertilization, it contains
approximately 50 to 150 cells. Under a defined environment, the embryonic stem cell has the

20CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
capability of self-renewing for an indefinite time in a similar manner. The cells form
specialized kinds of tissues that include epithelial, nervous, connective, and muscular that
form the structure of the body. The use of embryonic stem cells is used for creating new
tissues that help in treating certain severe diseases or even prevent death.
Figure 10: Characteristics of Embryonic stem cells
Source: (Stemcells.nih.gov 2020)
As per the study conducted by Salazar-Roa and Malumbres, cell division is a
complicated process that needs a high-energy requirement. It involves the active division of
cells that pass through a number of stages, including two-gap steps that are known as G1 and
G2 and synthesis phase, where duplication of the genetic material occurs. In the mitosis
phases, the partition occurs between the genetic elements, and thus, cell division occurs.

21CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 11: Cell cycle of a eukaryotic cell
Source: (Ravera et al. 2016)
In the eukaryotes, two distinct cell divisions occur that include vegetative division, in
which the daughter cell is similar to the parent cell, and it is known as mitosis and the
somatic cell division where the number of chromosomes is reduced in the daughter cell thus,
half of the chromosomes are produced as haploid gametes known as meiosis. As per the study
of Mishra and Chan , interphase is a stage in the cell division that occurs before mitosis,
meiosis, and cytokinesis. Three significant phases in the interphase include G1, S, and G2. In
the G1, growth of cell occurs where specialized cellular functions occur that involve a
preparation stage for DNA replication. The checkpoints are present in this phase that allows
the cell to organize itself for the development. In the S phase, the chromosomes start
replicating for maintenance of the genetic content within the cell. At the end of G2, the cell
undergoes a final stage of growth before entering into M phases where the spindle formation
occurs. The M phase can be either mitosis or meiosis and depend on the type of cells being

22CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
synthesized. The gamete or germ cells are found to undergo meiosis, whereas the somatic cell
undergoes mitosis. After the cell had successfully passed the M phase, the cell division is
completed through cytokinesis. The checkpoints that are present in the interphase are
controlled with the help of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases, which are protein kinases
used for regulation in the cell division process. According to the study of, the cell spends
approximately 90% of life in the interphase phase. This is because, without this phase, the
cells will not be able to divide, as there would not be any material for the division. In the
interphase, the cells are responsible for growing, creation of essential proteins, and
duplication of chromosomes. Therefore, in case the DNA material is not replicated, there will
not be a sufficient amount that is required for division (Sanchón J1, 2018).
With the help of simple yeast cells, scientists have been able to discover the
mechanism that helps in understanding the reason parent cells ensure that the daughter cells
receive the exact and correct number of chromosomes. Shaw (2017) opined that in most
healthy cells in the human body, there are a pair of 23 chromosomes responsible for encoding
the genetic material. In a healthy human cell, the chromosomes divide, and one copy is
passed to each of the daughter cells. Thus, in case the process is disrupted, an unequal
division of chromosomes occurs, which is a cancerous stated. In the cell division, DNA is
passed from one generation to another irrespective of the fact that the organism is eukaryotes
or prokaryotes. In the case of mitosis, a parent cell separates into two genetically identical
daughter cells as a result of which, the same number of chromosomes are passed from the
parent cell. On the contrary to this, meiosis involves sexual reproduction, where new cells
known as gametes are formed. These gametes contain half the chromosomes as present in the
parent cell, and thus, they are unique. The uniqueness is due to the shuffling of DNA of the
parent cells prior to division.

23CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Figure 12: Pictorial depiction of differences between healthy and cancerous cells
Source: (Verywell Health 2020)
The table below vividly compared the differences between the two types of cells.
Factors Normal cells Cancerous cells
Shape of cell The shape of normal cells
involves an organized form
that can be found in
different shapes and sizes, as
they are responsible for
differentiating into
specialized tissue exhibiting
functions. Thus, they
The cancer cell is formed
due to mutations and, thus,
appears to be a chaotic
amalgamation of a number
of cells that divides and
proliferates uncontrollably
into different and
disorganized shapes and

24CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
maintain the shape all the
time.
sizes.
Nucleus The smooth appearance of
the nucleus forms a
distinguished and spheroid
shape in a healthy cell.
In cancer cells, there is a
bulge called blebs in the
membrane of the nucleus.
According to the study of,
scientists have revealed that
blebbing occurred due to the
imbalance of protein in the
nuclear lamina that led to
the separation of lamina
fibers.
Growth suppressors The normal cells are
controlled by the presence of
growth suppressor as a result
of which, they do not
proliferate uncontrollably.
The mutation in the body
results in inactivation of the
growth or tumor-suppressing
gene; thus, it allows the
growth of cancer cells in an
unchecked manner.
Invasiveness The normal cells understand
the signals provided by the
neighboring cells and thus,
The cancer cell is invasive
because it cannot understand
the signals from surrounding

25CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
limit their growth.
Therefore, it does not invade
other nearby cells, which is
known as contact inhibition.
cells. Peiris-Pagès et al.
opined that non-cancerous
benign tumor has a fibrous
capsule that pushes against
other tissue; however, do not
invade. On the other hand,
malign tumor invades, and
there is the presence of
finger-like projections
observed during radiological
studies.
Source of energy The normal cells attain
energy in the form of
molecules known as
Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) from the citric acid
cycle and glycolysis.
Several cancer cells attain
their energy sources from
glycolysis even though;
oxygen is present. The
reason that helps in
explaining the phenomena is
hyperbaric oxygen can be
flawed that promotes the
growth of cancer. age
Mortality Mortal Immortal

26CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Genomic Stability Genetically stable because
of the normal numbers of
chromosomes and DNA.
These are genetically
unstable due to uncontrolled
growth.
Table 3: Comparison between healthy and cancer cells
Conclusion
The cell is the primary constituent of the body of an organism; therefore, it is being
referred to as the structural, biological, and functional unit of life. Consequently, it is critical
to understand cell biology because it is the basic unit of life, and knowledge of it helps in
gaining information about various extricate aspects of the body and its functions. One of the
primary reasons that the study of the cell is vital in modern times is because of widespread
diseases that affect humans. The discussion of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was
studied that include the influence of viruses on both cell types. Cellular metabolism is one of
the most critical physiological processes that perform some of the essential functions in the
body. It helps in the conversion of nutrients to the energy that supports the proper functioning
of vital processes within the body. It is also responsible for converting the food into building
blocks for nucleic acid, carbohydrates, and proteins and eliminates nitrogenous wastes. Thus,
it maintains a balance within the body by effective utilization of nutrients and removal of
waste materials. The processes allow an organism to grow and reproduce effectively as well
as respond to environmental stimuli. The analysis was based on demonstrating the cellular
metabolism in specific areas such as the role of the cell membrane, the part of nucleic acid in
cytoplasm and nucleus, and the process used in the synthesis of protein. This supported in
gaining an extensive idea of the cellular process that occurs within the body and its

27CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
importance on the existence of the organism. The cell growth and division occur differently
in a mixed population of cells; however, there is an underlying mechanism that is followed by
all the multicellular organisms that include interphase, mitosis, and meiosis. By studying this
process, the importance of cell division and growth was identified in both unicellular and
multicellular organisms. It helped in understanding the process that leads to the unlimited
proliferation of cells, causing a deadly disease, cancer. The differentiation between tumor and
normal cell have been highlighted that allowed in understanding its characteristics.

28CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
References
Adeva-Andany, M.M., Pérez-Felpete, N., Fernández-Fernández, C., Donapetry-García, C.
and Pazos-García, C., 2016. Liver glucose metabolism in humans. Bioscience reports, 36(6),
p.e00416. Retrieved from:
Anderson, M.J., Stark, J.C., Hodgman, C.E. and Jewett, M.C., 2015. Energizing eukaryotic
cell-free protein synthesis with glucose metabolism. FEBS letters, 589(15), pp.1723-1727.
Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2015.05.045
Bartee, L., 2019. Mitosis: Eukaryotic Cell Division. MHCC Biology 112: Biology for Health
Professions. Retrieved from: https://mhccbiology112.pressbooks.com/chapter/10-2-
eukaryotic-cell-division/
Bellincampi, D., Cervone, F. and Lionetti, V., 2014. Plant cell wall dynamics and wall-
related susceptibility in plant–pathogen interactions. Frontiers in plant science, 5, p.228. 5-51.
Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00228
Bolte, K., Rensing, S.A. and Maier, U.G., 2015. The evolution of eukaryotic cells from the
perspective of peroxisomes: phylogenetic analyses of peroxisomal beta‐oxidation enzymes
support mitochondria‐first models of eukaryotic cell evolution. BioEssays, 37(2), pp.195-203.
Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201400151
Brar, G.A. and Weissman, J.S., 2015. Ribosome profiling reveals the what, when, where and
how of protein synthesis. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 16(11), p.651. Retrieved
from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrm4069

29CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Buckner, M.M., 2016. Divide and conquer: Salmonella move into both daughter cells during
mitosis. Virulence, 7(6), pp.616-619. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1080/21505594.2016.1190063
Carter, C. and Mente, E., 2014. Protein synthesis in crustaceans: a review focused on feeding
and nutrition. Open Life Sciences, 9(1), pp.1-10. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.2478/s11535-013-0134-0
Chandel, N.S., 2015. Evolution of mitochondria as signaling organelles. Cell metabolism,
22(2), pp.204-206. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.2478/s11535-013-0134-0
Chernomordik, L.V., Marrink, S.J. and McMahon, H.T., 2014. Mechanisms shaping cell m
Spriet, L.L., 2014. New insights into the interaction of carbohydrate and fat metabolism
during exercise. Sports medicine, 44(1), pp.87-96.embranes. Current opinion in cell biology,
29, pp.53-60. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0154-1
Cinco, R., Hedde, P.N., Malacrida, L., Digman, M.A. and Gratton, E., 2019. Multi-Modal
Fluorescence Characterization of Cell Cycle Progression and Cytokinesis. Biophysical
Journal, 116(3), p.24a. Retrieved from:
Cordeiro, R.M., 2014. Reactive oxygen species at phospholipid bilayers: distribution,
mobility and permeation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Biomembranes, 1838(1),
pp.438-444. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.09.016
Encarnação, J.C., Barta, P., Fornstedt, T. and Andersson, K., 2017. Impact of assay
temperature on antibody binding characteristics in living cells: A case study. Biomedical
reports, 7(5), pp.400-406. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2017.982

30CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Escobar, J. and Snyman, N., 2016. Nutritional strategies to improve gut health status in farm
animals. AFMA Matrix, 25(2), pp.28-29. Retrieved from:
https://journals.co.za/content/vp_afma/25/2/EJC194480
Fadaka, A., Ajiboye, B., Ojo, O., Adewale, O., Olayide, I. and Emuowhochere, R., 2017.
Biology of glucose metabolization in cancer cells. Journal of Oncological Sciences, 3(2),
pp.4. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jons.2017.06.002
Gaur, R., Mishra, L. and Gupta, S.K.S., 2014. Diffusion and transport of molecules in living
cells. In Modelling and Simulation of Diffusive Processes (pp. 27-49). Springer, Cham.
Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-05657-9_2
Goncalves, A., Roi, S., Nowicki, M., Dhaussy, A., Huertas, A., Amiot, M.J. and Reboul, E.,
2015. Fat-soluble vitamin intestinal absorption: absorption sites in the intestine and
interactions for absorption. Food chemistry, 172, pp.155-160. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.021
Goñi, F.M., 2014. The basic structure and dynamics of cell membranes: An update of the
Singer–Nicolson model. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Biomembranes, 1838(6),
pp.1467-1476. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.01.006
Jones, J.R. and Zhang, S.C., 2016. Engineering human cells and tissues through pluripotent
stem cells. Current opinion in biotechnology, 40, pp.133-138. Retrieved from:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958166916300660
Kohen, E. ed., 2014. Cell structure and function by microspectrofluorometry. Academic
Press. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.in/books?

31CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
hl=en&lr=&id=iLhQAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Kohen,+E.+ed.,
+2014.+Cell+structure+and+function+by+microspectrofluorometry.+Academic+Press.
+&ots=Y7VON2ECJf&sig=ODLUSMlsYymyODlYrQ4FqcZyk38&redir_esc=y#v=onepage
&q=Kohen%2C%20E.%20ed.%2C%202014.%20Cell%20structure%20and%20function
%20by%20microspectrofluorometry.%20Academic%20Press.&f=false
Lekka, M., 2016. Discrimination between normal and cancerous cells using
AFM. Bionanoscience, 6(1), pp.65-80. Retrieved from:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12668-016-0191-3
Loose, M. and Mitchison, T.J., 2014. The bacterial cell division proteins FtsA and FtsZ self-
organize into dynamic cytoskeletal patterns. Nature cell biology, 16(1), p.38. Retrieved from:
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncb2885
Lynch, M. and Marinov, G.K., 2016. Reply to Lane and Martin: Mitochondria do not boost
the bioenergetic capacity of eukaryotic cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 113(6), pp.E667-E668. Retrieved from:
https://www.pnas.org/content/113/6/E667.short
Mishra, P. and Chan, D.C., 2014. Mitochondrial dynamics and inheritance during cell
division, development and disease. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 15(10), p.634.
Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrm3877
Möller, M.N., Cuevasanta, E., Orrico, F., Lopez, A.C., Thomson, L. and Denicola, A., 2019.
Diffusion and Transport of Reactive Species Across Cell Membranes. In Bioactive Lipids in
Health and Disease (pp. 3-19). Springer, Cham. Retrieved from:
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-11488-6_1

32CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Kozlov, M.M., Campelo, F., Liska, N., Nicolson, G.L., 2014. The Fluid—Mosaic Model of
Membrane Structure: Still relevant to understanding the structure, function and dynamics of
biological membranes after more than 40 years. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-
Biomembranes, 1838(6), pp.1451-1466. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.10.019
Oh, N. and Park, J.H., 2014. Endocytosis and exocytosis of nanoparticles in mammalian
cells. International journal of nanomedicine, 9(Suppl 1), p.51. Retrieved from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4024976/
Orsi, D., Guzmán, E., Liggieri, L., Ravera, F., Ruta, B., Chushkin, Y., Rimoldi, T. and
Cristofolini, L., 2015. 2D dynamical arrest transition in a mixed nanoparticle-phospholipid
layer studied in real and momentum spaces. Scientific reports, 5, p.17930. Retrieved from:
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep17930
Ott, M., Amunts, A. and Brown, A., 2016. Organization and regulation of mitochondrial
protein synthesis. Annual review of biochemistry, 85, pp.77-101. Retrieved from:
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-biochem-060815-014334
Peiris-Pagès, M., Martinez-Outschoorn, U.E., Pestell, R.G., Sotgia, F. and Lisanti, M.P.,
2016. Cancer stem cell metabolism. Breast Cancer Research, 18(1), p.55. Retrieved from:
https://breast-cancer-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13058-016-0712-6
Ravera, S., Dufour, C., Cesaro, S., Bottega, R., Faleschini, M., Cuccarolo, P., Corsolini, F.,
Usai, C., Columbaro, M., Cipolli, M. and Savoia, A., 2016. Evaluation of energy metabolism
and calcium homeostasis in cells affected by Shwachman-Diamond syndrome. Scientific

33CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
reports, 6, p.25441. Retrieved from:
https://breast-cancer-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13058-016-0712-6
Richter-Dennerlein, R., Oeljeklaus, S., Lorenzi, I., Ronsör, C., Bareth, B., Schendzielorz,
A.B., Wang, C., Warscheid, B., Rehling, P. and Dennerlein, S., 2016. Mitochondrial protein
synthesis adapts to influx of nuclear-encoded protein. Cell, 167(2), pp.471-483. Retrieved
from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.003
Salazar-Roa, M. and Malumbres, M., 2017. Fueling the cell division cycle. Trends in cell
biology, 27(1), pp.69-81.
Sanchón, J., Fernández-Tomé, S., Miralles, B., Hernández-Ledesma, B., Tomé, D.,
Gaudichon, C. and Recio, I., 2018. Protein degradation and peptide release from milk
proteins in human jejunum. Comparison with in vitro gastrointestinal simulation. Food
Chemistry, 239, pp.486-494. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.06.134
Shaw, S.L., 2017. Cell Biology: Narrowing the Great Divide. Current Biology, 27(4),
pp.R150-R152. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.01.015
Shrimal, S. and Gilmore, R., 2018. Oligosaccharyltransferase structures provide novel insight
into the mechanism of asparagine-linked glycosylation in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Glycobiology, 29(4), pp.288-297. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1093/glycob/cwy093
Stemcells.nih.gov. 2020. Embryonic Stem Cells | stemcells.nih.gov. [online] Available at:
https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/Regenerative_Medicine/2006Chapter1.htm [Accessed 4 Jan.
2020].

34CELL STRUCTURE, METABOLISM AND CELL GROWTH
Threadgold, L.T., 2017. The ultrastructure of the animal cell: international series in pure and
applied biology (Vol. 55). Elsevier. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.in/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=5wjLBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Threadgold,+L.T.,
+2017.+The+ultrastructure+of+the+animal+cell:
+international+series+in+pure+and+applied+biology+(Vol.+55).
+&ots=DarPMfgPyR&sig=12LeptxJlefLlvnVeNq8bJJVw-
Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Threadgold%2C%20L.T.%2C%202017.%20The
%20ultrastructure%20of%20the%20animal%20cell%3A%20international%20series%20in
%20pure%20and%20applied%20biology%20(Vol.%2055).&f=false
Turlier, H., Audoly, B., Prost, J. and Joanny, J.F., 2014. Furrow constriction in animal cell
cytokinesis. Biophysical journal, 106(1), pp.114-123. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2013.11.014
Winey, M. and O'Toole, E., 2014. Centriole structure. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1650), p.20130457. Retrieved from:
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2013.0457
Wu, G., 2017. Principles of animal nutrition. CRC Press. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315120065
Zhou, Q., Wang, M., Yuan, Y., Wang, X., Fu, R., Wan, H., Xie, M., Liu, M., Guo, X., Zheng,
Y. and Feng, G., 2016. Complete meiosis from embryonic stem cell-derived germ cells in
vitro. Cell stem cell, 18(3), pp.330-340. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2016.01.017