Civil Engineering Report: Earthwork, Foundations, and Road Design

This report provides a comprehensive overview of civil engineering practices, focusing on substructures, earthwork, and road construction. It details earthwork processes, equipment, and techniques, including excavation, transportation, and compaction methods. The report explores various foundation types (deep and shallow), piling methods, and drainage activities. It also covers techniques for culvert and underpass construction, excavation methods, slope stability, and hazards associated with confined spaces and tall structures. A site installation method statement and a health and safety plan are included. Furthermore, the report addresses environmental, economic, and geotechnical considerations of a civil engineering project, proposing solutions to potential problems and discussing highway design techniques, road construction methods (soil stabilized, cement concrete, bituminous), and flexible and bridge foundation construction. The report highlights the importance of safety, sustainability, and effective engineering practices throughout the construction process.

1
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
By Name
Course
Instructor
Institution
Location
Date

2
Introduction
This report discusses the techniques used in civil engineering for substructures and earthwork.
The process of earthwork is clearly defined and different techniques and equipment used are
discussed. A safety plan assessment and method statement for the given scenario has been clearly
presented.
Earthworks
Earthwork is defined as the process of loosening, excavating, loading, transporting and placing
soil somewhere else away from the construction site to create space for construction of an
engineering structure or project (Trenter, 2016, p. 143). There are four processes involved in
earthworks and they include;
 Loosening and excavation of soil
 Transporting of excavated soil.
 Placement
 compaction of the soil (Boettger, 2016, p. 432)
Depending on the resources available, the existing site conditions and quantity of work to be
done, there are many equipment used in the process of earthwork such as;
 Compacting equipment
 Transporting equipment
 Excavation Equipment
Excavation equipment
These refers to the equipment used in loosening and excavating the ground. They include;
o Scrapers
o Power shovel (Horner, 2017, p. 134)

3
o Bulldozers
o Clam shells
Equipment used in transportation
These are equipment that is used in achieving geographic mobility excavated soils from the site
to where they will be place. Such equipment include;
o Trucks
o Tippers
o Dumpers
o Belt conveyors (Aldiss, 2011, p. 453)
Equipment for compaction
These refers to the equipment used in compacting the soil once it has been placed and they
include;
o Pneumatic tired rollers
o Sheep foot roller
o Smooth wheel rollers
o Vibratory roller equipment
Techniques and methods used in earthwork process
There are various strategies and approaches adopted during the process of earthwork and they
include;
o Borrow and cut to crossbill.

4
o U-cut ( Great Britain. Council for Codes of Practice, 2012, p. 564)
o Levelling
Methods used in the construction of complex foundations
During the construction process of engineering structures, different types of foundations can be
used, depending on a number of factors such as;
 Availability of construction materials,
 Cost
 Load to be supported.
Foundations are normally classified into two categories i.e.
Deep foundations
Deep foundations are foundations which are used in situation where the load imposed on the
foundation is significantly more than soil bearing capacity (Harrison, 2014, p. 564).
Shallow foundations
Shallow foundations are types of foundations used in situations where the load to be supported is
in comparison to the bearing capacity of soil.
Methods and techniques used in pilling works
Various methods are applied during the construction of piles in the given case, the piles will be
constructed by being drilled into the ground directly by the use of bore pilling machine. This will
be easily achieved through the application of pile drivers (Winter, 2015, p. 125). The piles will
be greatly applicable in regions where the soil is relatively unstable. Based on their function,

5
procedure for instalment and availability of the construction materials different methods can be
used in the pilling works. The different techniques/methods for the construction of piles include;
Types of piles depending on materials
 Steel piles
 Concrete piles
 Timber piles
Types of piles depending on the use/function
 Soil compaction piles
 End piles
 Sheet piles
 Friction piles (Parag Das, 2018, p. 38)
The drainage activities will include the following;
 Diversion of storm water
 Minimizing of soil erosion processes
 Mitigating the rill erosion by ensuring proper management of sheet run-off.
 Enhancing easy site management through partitioning the site into manageable zones
Techniques and Methods used in culvert and underpass construction
There are various techniques incorporated in the construction of culverts and underpasses. They
include;
i) Pipe culverts

6
They are normally circular and are frequently used.
ii) Application of pipe arch culverts
They are usually semi-circular and are generally used in the construction in areas where there
is large flow of water.
Methods and techniques applied in excavations and large earth moving operations
In the given situation deep excavation will be applied during the building of the offices which
will make application of an effective support system in the safeguarding of the cut. Because it
will be a problem to evade groundwater, the application of a cofferdam will be of great
importance. It will be possible to use a sheet pile cofferdam in digging up to 15 meters deep.
Techniques applied in handling the ground and slope stability
Utilization of the internal and external stabilization system will be the most suitable technique in
solving problems related to instability of different slopes. In the external stabilization process
steel bin walls, timber cribs and cantilever will be used. Consecutively it will be possible to
adopt reinforcing mechanism in the retaining walls and the internal stabilization system.
Hazards and risks involved in working in a confined space
Working in a confined space involves many hazards and risks such as:
 Explosive or flammable atmosphere
 Free flowing of solid materials
 Lack of enough oxygen
 Excessive heat
 Toxic atmosphere

7
Risks and hazards of working on tall structures
There are many hazards which can be directly and indirectly linked with working in a tall
structure and they include:
 Possible failure of the structure
 Noise pollution
 Accidents resulting from falling of building materials, tools and equipment
 Harmful materials (Sarkisian, 2017, p. 332)
Site Installation method statement
A team of four members will handle the installation of the site. It will be made up of members
who will be getting orders from the managers about:
 Emergence procedures
 Identification of hazards
 Limitations on security matters
 Regulations governing the site
 Welfare facilities
 Safety measures and how they should be applied on the construction site.
 Construction materials stacking should be carried out in an appropriate, which should
also reflect the order of their equipment. Initial erection of frames to be carried out
 Final hanging of the doors (Robertson & Naka, 2017, p. 221)
 Roof glazing
 Opening of the vent fittings
 Trimming roof metal structures

8
Health and safety legislation and codes of conduct associated with construction sites in civil
engineering
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 also known as HASAWA is the key legislation which
covers work health and safety in Great Britain. The Safety and Health Executive, implementing
authorities and the local authorities are full in charge for the enforcement of the above
mentioned Act and other minor Acts along with the Statutory Tools that are of importance and
relevant to the operational atmosphere.
Justification
Identification and finally determining the adequacy of installing the construction site would be of
great importance especially in getting assurance that the construction materials and tools to be
used and would remain during construction period. Therefore, it should never be ignored or even
underestimated. Recommended safety plan will help in ensuring the cases of accidents and
deaths are largely reduced or even totally avoided throughout the construction period (Institution
of Structural Engineers, 2016, p. 33).
The quality environmental, economic and geotechnical contests of a civil engineering
problem
Industrial complex structure is expected to be sited near the river which will be draining its
wastes there. The discharge will obviously have negative impacts on the water bodies. Oil
remains, paint chemicals diesel amongst other wastes will be carried along into the river. The
excavation process is likely to create loose debris and other dirt materials which may make the
water in the river muddy and dumpy. Therefore, such cases which have a direct interference on
the environment are very sensitive and they should be given all the attention required.

9
The soil PH is likely to change. This is as a result of the acids in the pollutants. There will be a
negative impact especially in geological works of such areas incase other future construction
works. The quality of water which is underground is likely to reduce and even deteriorate to high
levels. Projects in such areas are really uneconomical (Concrete Society Working Party, 2013, p.
169).
Proposal on how the quality, geotechnical, economic and environmental problems would be
recognized
 Chemicals containers which contains oil and paint should be stored properly
 Utilization of chemicals applied in curing should be carried out for the safeguarding of
the drains
 Polluted surface runoffs should be well managed at a given place (American Institute of
Architects. , 2017, p. 278).
Proposal for a building/infrastructure project
Techniques used for designing a highway
Some of the techniques which are applied when designing a road are subjected under:
 The physical world of the place
 The type of road to be made
 The street order (Salter, 2017, p. 228)
 Prerequisites sustainability
 Characterization of the neighbourhood materials.
 The Landscape through which the street passes
 Traffic power flow

10
The highways are designed through its guidelines and standards. They are usually adopted by the
national agencies through the development standards (Mayhew, et al., 2019, p. 221). The
considerations are normally based on the road grade, the urgency, and view obstructions, kind of
vehicles and also the distance of stopping. The accuracy and certainty use of the expertise
established are in line with the correct engineering procedure. Using the correct procedure of the
engineering drafts, engineers can plot and build roads which are safe, comfortable and also a
good image for the end users. The designs are mainly classified into three main elements. They
include;
 Cross section
 Profile
 Alignment.
Cross section
It plays a key role in giving positions including the number of vehicles, lanes of the bicycles and
also footpaths within the bank angle (Xanthakos, 2016, p. 183).
Profile
It is applied while referring to the perpendicular specks of the road, which include the curves,
crests, sags and the vertical grades that join them.
The alignment
This can be defined as a part of the road that as a series parallel indirect curves.
Types used in the methods of constructing a road include:
.Types of the road construction methods are:

11
 Soil stabilized roads
 Cement concrete lanes
 Bituminous or dim top road
 Earth or gravel road
 Water bound macadam road (National Research Council (U.S.). Highway Research
Board, 2015, p. 75)
Various street differ on delivering the equivalent portion of the traffic capacity, potency or
power. Scheming financial progress while constructing a road remain the most important
measurements snice it is essential to have streets which are cost effective. Earth streets are
common cases of ease streets.
The rock and earth streets are commonly and chiefly found in urban areas, they are operated
lacking extra planning then they are eroded mostly in windy period.
The soil balanced out streets are made up in a related track like rock streets or earth streets,
though, the sub level soil is fixed up by squeezing to build its California posture ratio that brings
near enormous balances out of the street hence irresistible problems (Duan, 2014, p. 65).
Asphalt or blacktop is a kind of progressive system where a layer of tar is over an equally heavy
and thick rock base. The reasons as to why asphalt can be a given the first priority is that it
commonly delivers little or no commotion, it is generally simple to fix and that it as
comparatively little effort compared with different materials.
Concrete: when compared with black top, it is more long lasting and also more grounded, though
it is very expensive to lay and maintain.

12
Composite: Composite materials are of both black top and concrete, therefore usually operated in
any of the two methods. They are frequently operated in areas of development which are
gradually well known with support, reusing and restoration. (Pfefer, et al., 2017, p. 15)
1. Bituminous resolutions- These and other temporary preparations are classes of progress which
are right for use on low traffic streets.
2. Recycling – They exist three run of grinder classes of progressive structures known with
recycling the outside of the upset. They include
 Rubbishing (Paikowsky, 2010, p. 231)
 Reusing cold/hot set up
 Fully profundity recovery
Techniques and methods applied in the construction of flexible foundations and bridge
foundations
The bridge foundations are very essential because they can offer suitable that is able to back the
mass of the bridge and the traffic piles which are carried by the bridge (International Council for
Building Research, 2014, p. 332). Different categories of foundation are applied while
constructing the foundation of the bridge. They include:
Drilled/shaft foundation- They are commonly build in deep quarries secured by a lining that is
build followed by filling it using concrete or any stuffing that consists units which are assembled.
Pile foundations- They are slim pillars which are extended tubes made up of different
constituents which include concrete and steel. The two are mainly used in order to ensure enough

13
provision of backing to the erections through the relocation of the loads to the required depths by
the end of the bearing. (Warne, 2011, p. 447).
Caissons foundation/pier foundation- this is a waterproof holding structure that is used in bridge
piers construction. It is usually made up of hollow tube or box which is sunk to the ground to a
given depth. It is then filled with concrete occasioning (Chen & Duan, 2011, p. 15)
Conclusion
In conclusion, Earthwork is defined as the process of loosening, excavating, loading, transporting
and placing soil somewhere else away from the construction site to create space for construction
of an engineering structure or project. There are many hazards and risks associated with working
in a confined environment and they include; explosive or flammable atmosphere, free flowing of
solid materials, insufficient oxygen, excessive heat. Finally highways are designed through its
guidelines and standards. They are usually adopted by the national agencies through the
development standards. The considerations are normally based on the road grade, the urgency,
and view obstructions, kind of vehicles and also the distance of stopping

14
REFERENCES
Great Britain. Council for Codes of Practice, 2012. Earthworks: British Standard Code of
Practice CP. 4th ed. Chicago: British Standards Institution.
Aldiss, B., 2011. Earthworks. 3rd ed. Paris: Faber & Faber.
American Institute of Architects. , 2017. Human Response to Tall Buildings. 4th ed. London:
Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Boettger, S., 2016. Earthworks: Art and the Landscape of the Sixties. illustrated, ed. London:
University of California Press.
Chen, W.-F. & Duan, L., 2011. Handbook of International Bridge Engineering. 4th ed. London:
Wai-Fah Chen, Lian Duan.
Concrete Society Working Party, 2013. Underwater Concretin. 3rd ed. Sydney: Concrete
Society,.
Duan, L., 2014. Bridge Engineering Handbook Substructure Design. 1st ed. Texas: CRC Press,.
Harrison, T., 2014. Earthworks. 5th ed. London: Northern House,.
Horner, P., 2017. Earthworks. 4th ed. London: illustrated.
Institution of Structural Engineers, 2016. Risk Management Series: Site and Urban Design for
Security - Guidance Against Potential Terrorist Attacks. 5th ed. Chicago: FEMA.
International Council for Building Research, S. a. D., 2014. International Directory of Building
Research Information and Development Organizations. 3rd ed. Chicago: Routledge.

15
Mayhew, G. H., Struble, R. & Zahn, J., 2019. Geophysical Methods as an Aid in the
Procurement of Highway Design Information. 1st ed. London: Engineering Experiment Station,
Ohio State University.
National Research Council (U.S.). Highway Research Board, 2015. Special Report - Highway
Research Board,. 3rd ed. Paris: The Board..
Paikowsky, S., 2010. LRFD Design and Construction of Shallow Foundations for Highway
Bridge Structures. 5th ed. Paris: Transportation Research Board,.
Parag Das, 2018. Current and Future Trends in Bridge Design, Construction and Maintenance:
Safety, Economy, Sustainability and Aesthetics : P. 6th ed. Berlin: Thomas Telford.
Pfefer, R., Neuman, T. & Raub, R., 2017. Improved Safety Information to Support Highway
Design. 5th ed. Sydney: Transportation Research Board,.
Robertson, L. & Naka, T., 2017. Tall Building Criteria and Loading. 4th ed. Chicago: ASCE
Publications.
Salter, J., 2017. Highway Design and Construction. 2nd ed. Chicago: Macmillan International
Higher Education.
Sarkisian, M., 2017. Designing Tall Buildings: Structure as Architecture. illustrated ed. Chicago:
Routledge.
Trenter, N., 2016. Earthworks: A Guide. 1st ed. Texas: Thomas Telford.
United States. National Park Service. Park Historic Architecture Division, United States.
National Park Service. Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, Andropogon Associates, 2012.

16
Earthworks Landscape Management. 5th ed. Sydney: Park Historic Architecture Division,
Cultural Resources, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
Warne, T., 2011. Techniques for Effective Highway Construction Projects in Congested Urban
Areas. 4th ed. Texas: Transportation Research Board.
Winter, M., 2015. The determination of the acceptability of selected fragmenting materials for
earthworks compaction : prepared for National Roads Directorate, Scottish Office Development
Department. 6th ed. London: Thomas Telford.
Xanthakos, P., 2016. Theory and Design of Bridges. illustrated ed. London: John Wiley & Sons.