Cognitive and Affective Basis of Behavior: Exam Questions

This assignment delves into the cognitive and affective basis of behavior, examining major theoretical psychological perspectives on emotion, including the evolutionary and social constructivist theories, and emotion regulation, such as Gross's model. It explores methodological challenges in studying emotion and regulation, addressing inconsistencies in literature, data, and online research protocols, along with solutions to preserve validity. The assignment emphasizes the importance of considering emotion and emotion regulation in psychopathology, using examples of anxiety disorders, depression, and PTSD to illustrate their impact. The student's response provides a detailed overview of the topics covered, providing definitions, explanations, and analysis to fulfill the requirements of the comprehensive exam question.

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGY 1
Cognitive and Affective Basis of Behavior
Name of University

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Introduction
1.Explain at least two major theoretical psychological perspectives on what emotion is and
what elements comprise the experience of emotion (e.g., is it just a “feeling?”).
Emotions are an intrinsic part of what makes humans and carry a powerful impact on
human behaviors. Researchers, philosophers, and psychologists have put forth different theories
to explain emotions and how they work. However, emotions cannot be analyzed from a single
perspective, as they are sophisticated and subtle. There are several major theoretical
psychological perspectives proposed to explain emotions, and the evolutionary theory of emotion
and Social Constructivist theory are two of them.
According to the evolutionary theory of emotion, emotions have evolved and adapted
over the years to allow human beings to survive and reproduce. The adaptive role is central to
developing and changing emotions to respond to different stimuli, so as to safeguard humans and
help them to survive in a different environment (Al-Shawaf, Conroy-Beam, Asao, & Buss,
2015). Certain emotions are naturally selected in order to respond to different stimuli within the
environment and face the problems successfully. From an evolutionary perspective, emotions are
directed mechanisms that have evolved in response to how the mind and body solved a specific
adaptive problem. For instance, the emotions of disgust regulate the mechanism to keep away
from an aversive and dangerous situation. The human body is physiologically and
psychologically programmed for an advantageous mating opportunity.
It is important to emphasize that while one can learn and understand a new situation and
whether it is favorable or unfavorable, one cannot learn a new emotion. The emotion states are
set by evolution and are a result of recurring environmental challenges that humans have faced

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over generations. It is the flexibility of emotion states that allows one to link one emotion to
different stimuli and behaviors through learning (Adolphs & Anderson, 2018). Evolution had
encouraged certain functions and proper behaviors for emotional states. The emotions were used
throughout evolution for useful purposes.
However, emotional behaviors cannot be interpreted with just one theory or from one
perspective, and it is essential to study them from different viewpoints. Another essential theory
is the Social Constructivist Perspective, which is the most recent theoretical outlook on
emotions. The social constructivists suggest that emotions are cultural products that adhere to the
learned social rules and cannot be limited to the phylogenetic past in strict physiological terms
(Cornelius, 2000). Emotions are part of social construction, and certain systems of culturally-
specific rules accomplish emotions socially. According to Social Constructivist theory, emotions
are built within a culture for certain social purposes.
Emotions should not be confused with feelings and moods but are based on complex
behavioral and physiological elements. They help an individual to deal with different situations,
both favorable and unfavorable. Emotions are responses to external stimuli. For example,
happiness is an emotion and initiates the feeling of “being happy” that gets manifested
consciously in physical expression and behavior (Elias, 2018). A typical conscious experience of
emotion one to be awake and conscious and be aware of feelings in the body, the beliefs in
oneself and the urge to behave in certain ways as stated by Adolphs& Anderson, (2018).
2. Explain at least two major theoretical psychological perspectives on what emotion
regulation is and what it consists of.

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Recent studies of emotion regulation are based on the thriving field of research that
covers a wide variety of psychological disciplines. These studies offer an essential extension to
the earlier models of emotion regulation, and significant progress has been made in
understanding emotion regulation. Emotion regulation involves different strategies to face
different sessions, and it is the flexibility of choices available that allow emotion-regulation. The
level of emotional intensity and the flexibility of individuals' choices can lead to certain emotion-
regulation strategies. The emotional information received gets structured at an early stage and
disengages from cognitive dealing of the emotional information (Sheppes, Scheibe, Suri, &
Gross 2011).
According to Gross’s model, emotions get controlled at five precise asepcts during the
emotion generative process. These include the positioning of attention, the choice of the
situation, cognitive changes, situation modification, and the modulation of physiological and
behavioral responses (Kobylińska, 2019). However, emotional equilibrium can break down
where the flexibility in emotion is limited. For example, highly negative emotional information
can create inflexible disengagement and lead to depression, as stated by Sheppes, Scheibe, Suri,
& Gross (2011).
Psychological and social constructionist theories view emotions as a result of social
cognitive processes and look at the distinction between generation of emotions and emotion
regulation to be artificial and arbitrary (Paz, 2018). The social constructionist theories are in
contrast with the Gross’ model, who argues that basic emotion approaches propose a clear
distinction between emotion and emotion regulation.

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Goal-directedness carries an essential role in emotion regulatory processes, and
regulation needs some kind of purpose. The emotional feedback processes depend on the goal
and are implemented by regulatory mechanisms. Emotion regulation can be conscious, explicit,
controlled or unconscious, implicit, and automatic. These different processes lead to variations in
regulatory strategies and have an impact on emotion dynamics (Paz, 2018).
3.What are at least three of the methodological challenges’ researchers face in studying
emotion and emotion regulation? Analyze at least one example of how researchers have
solved each challenge you’ve named while preserving internal and external validity of their
research.
Studying the notion of emotion regulation has become essential in the psychological
realm, and the concept has been used to a wide range of varied psychological circumstances by
academic researchers and scholars. However, there are certain methodological challenges the
researchers face when studying emotion and emotion regulation.
Inconsistencies in literature
There are several distinct and independent bodies of research addressing issues emotion
and emotional regulation. There are several theories of emotion, and each theory differs from
others. Thus, for the current researchers, there is no definite standard for studying emotion (Cole,
Martin, & Dennis, 2004).
The definitional challenges are approached by accepting assumptions that are common to
the different emotion theories and are the most mentioned and quoted in the literature on emotion
and emotion regulation. Despite substantial differences, most theories share a neo-Darwinian
impact that considers emotions to be biological capabilities and essential for humans for survival
(Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). These assumptions offer a direction to the work of researchers.
Inconsistencies in Data and Measures of Emotional Expressiveness

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The strategies used for measuring Emotional Expressiveness varies across studies and
often use expressed emotion into coding conclusions, but without affirming a theoretical
justification behind for doing so. In several studies, the expressed emotions are used as a
measure of emotion regulation, but without the remark on behavioral approaches that work
behind (Bridges, Denham, & Ganiban, 2004). Thus, the use of specific strategies for
emotionality varies across settings.
Many researchers have begun to traverse the discrete patterns of emotion and emotion
regulation that usually involve levels of expressed emotion within a context and emotion
regulation behaviors to solve the issue. For example, many researchers use the three-group
category system that was established by Cummings to label emotion regulation patterns
(Bridges, Denham, & Ganiban, 2004). Such practices remove threats to internal and external
validity of the research and it is essential for the researchers to give utmost importance to the
concept of validity. Such person- centered approach based on three patterns of emotional and
behavioral responses can provide a clear and vivid description of a situation.
Inconsistencies in online research protocols
Another challenge faced by researchers face in studying emotion and emotion regulation
is when using technology-based tools. Researchers depend on technology for data-analytics and
research. While it is getting common to conduct research online and researchers are able to
access a huge volume of data from across the world and varying regions, concerns remain
regarding the online data collection and research protocols some of the key concerns revolve
around data security, sampling bias and scientific validity of the study ( Barrera, Dunn, Nichols,
Reardon, & Muñoz, 2016).

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Researchers and scholars are trying to combat the issue by following ethical principles of
research participation with detailed descriptions of online research protocols. The committees of
experts work towards the implementation of these standards in research investigations. Accurate
understanding and informed consent on behalf of the subject can address the potential for
negative consequences (Barrera, Dunn, Nichols, Reardon, & Muñoz, 2016).
4.Why is it important to consider emotion and emotion regulation in research on
psychopathology (discuss in regard to theory)? Include examples using specific
psychological disorders (at least three).
Emotions and emotion regulation are central to human experiences and influence their
attitudes and behaviors. It is the unique characteristic of emotions that serve as a powerful force
behind human behaviors and responses. Therefore, it becomes important to include emotion and
emotion regulation in research on psychopathology as the study of emotions allows a profound
comprehension of different psychological theories and deal with different disorders. The modern
theories of emotion fall between universalism and social constructivism with broadly conceived
positions (Elias, 2018).
When researchers study emotions and emotion regulation, they are able to understand
emotion deficits in humans and the underlying causes (Kring, 2010). Psychologists,
philosophers, sociologists, neuroscientists, they study different aspects of emotional processes
and have expanded emotion theories with much more validated measurements. The study of
emotions is getting increasingly common in other disciplines such as sociology, political science,
philosophy, and more. Different fields find the emotions and emotion regulation theories useful
as they help one to understand emotions in human behavior within specific domains and
situations (Halperin & Pliskin, 2015).

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In recent years, understanding of emotions and emotion regulation deficits have been
useful for treating a range of mental and psychological disorders. Different people differ in
emotion-specific behavior, and the experiential, behavioral, physiological, emotional
components vary with different individuals. Evidence of emotion regulation disturbances leads to
psychological disorders like anxiety disorders, and there is an inherent relationship that exists
between emotion deficits and anxiety disorder (Amstadter 2008). Depression is getting common
in urban societies and is seen as a response to excessive emotional reactivity. In extreme cases,
exposure to acute trauma can lead to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), as asserted by
Halperin & Pliskin (2015). Various emotion regulation strategies can help treat these disorders in
people with differing cognitive and epistemic needs.

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References
Amstadter A. (2008). Emotion regulation and anxiety disorders. Journal of anxiety disorders,
22(2), 211–221.
Al-Shawaf, L., Conroy-Beam, D., Asao, K., & Buss, D. M. (2015). Human Emotions: An
Evolutionary Psychological Perspective. Emotion Review, 1-14.
Adolphs, R.& Anderson, D.J. (2018). A New Synthesis: Theories of Emotions and Feelings.
Princeton University Press, 32(1), 281–306.
Barrera, A. Z., Dunn, L. B., Nichols, A., Reardon, S., & Muñoz, R. F. (2016). Getting it “Right”:
Ensuring informed consent for an online clinical trial. Journal of Empirical Research on
Human Research Ethics: An International Journal, 11(4), 291-298.
Bridges, L.J, Denham, S.A., & Ganiban, J.M. (2004). Definitional issues in emotion regulation
research. Child Development, 75(2), 340-345.
Cornelius, R. (2000). Theoretical approaches to emotion. Vassar College Researchgate, 1(1), 1–
9.
Elias, J. J. (2018). Alef is for allah: Childhood, emotion, and visual culture in islamic societies.
Oakland, California: University of California Press, 4(1), 18–60.
Halperin, E., & Pliskin, R. (2015). Emotions and emotion regulation in intractable conflict:
Studying emotional processes within a unique context. Political Psychology, 36(S1), 119-
150.

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Paz, A. W. (2018). Emotion regulation and goal-directedness. Teorema: Revista Internacional
De Filosofía, 37(2), 75-92.
Cole,P.M,, Martin, S.E, & Dennis, T.A, (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct:
Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child
Development, 75(2), 317-333.
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G. & Gross, J.J. (2011). Emotion-Regulation Choice.
Psychological Science, 22(11), 1391-1396