Communication Theories: Media Richness, Argumentation, and Beyond

This report delves into various communication theories, providing a comprehensive overview of key concepts and models. It begins by introducing the Media Richness Theory, discussing its strengths, weaknesses, and practical applications in the context of modern communication, particularly in the age of digital media. The report then explores Argumentation Theory, examining different approaches such as Pragma-Dialectics, The New Rhetoric, and Toulmin's Argument Model, and how these theories aid in understanding and constructing effective arguments. Furthermore, it touches upon Conversation Theory and other relevant frameworks. The analysis incorporates real-world examples and critical evaluations of each theory, offering valuable insights into the complexities of human communication and its impact on various aspects of society. The report also reflects on the challenges and adaptations required in the face of evolving communication technologies and practices, particularly in educational settings.

1
Communication
Theories
Punzalan, R.
Realubit, F.
Recto, R.
Refugio, C.
Salvador, J.
Samson. J.
Ms. Maychell B. Jastia, CHASS.
November 10, 2020

2
Introduction
As we are currently living in the 21 st century, almost everything got
modernized. From infrastructures to technological devices and even to our
way of living has been changed and continuously changing. We adapt easily
to the developments that happened for the reason that we need it to
survive. One factor of humanity that affects us the most is communication.
Since then, humans use this process to be able to pass messages to one
another that became new learning for all of us. Trillions of knowledges have
been passed down from our fallen history to our current society which helps
us build a new.
Most of the time, we, people do not know how we achieve such
“almost” perfect way of communicating. Lots of researches were done and
maybe currently on going for us to have a better understanding on how
communication works. It may seem an easy topic for us but once you try to
evaluate it from its core, you will realize that there’s a lot of thing you didn’t
know.
In this book, we would like to present you some theories that helped
our society to shape our communication process.

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Communication
Theories
Punzalan, R.
Realubit, F.
Recto, R.
Refugio, C.
Salvador, J.
Samson. J.
Ms. Maychell B. Jastia, CHASS.
November 10, 2020

4
Table of Content
Media Richness Theory 5-7
Argumentation Theory 8-11
Conversation Theory 12-13
Contagion Theory 14-16
Mood Management Theory 17-20
Theory of Digital Divide 21-23
Acknowledgement 24-25
References 26-28

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Richard L. Daft, Vanderbilt University.
Media Richness Theory, Richard Bergin.
Robert H. Lengel, Leader Work.
Media Richness Theory, campus-adr.net.
Media Richness Theory Punzalan
Back in 1984, two organizational scholars named Richard L. Daft and
Robert H. Lengel introduced a theory called Media Richness Theory also
known as Information Richness Theory. It became popular with the help
of electronic communication media such as emails and
telephones. The original MRT
(Daft and Lengel, 1984, 1986)
suggested that organizations need a
correct channel for the information
to be transmitted with the
avoidance of possible complications such as
uncertainty and equivocality. Every medium does have different levels of
richness that may affect the deliverance of messages. Later in 1987, Linda
Trevino continued studying this theory.
Many learning materials were published regarding this study and
narrowed the whole explanation. To simplify, this theory determines the
capability of media to transport information without much distortion.
The more that the message is prone to misunderstanding, the richer the
media should be. According to the theory, every media does have different
levels of richness in the information that they bring. Daft and Langel
presented a diagram to understand how it affects the communication
process. A media can be recognized as rich if they can deliver such a
message with much understanding and lean if they convey information
with poor comprehension. According to Shepherd and Martz (2006),
rich media is used to support increased communication in online
forums and an enhanced understanding of equivocal tasks. As for Sun and

6
Cheng (2007), lean media is helpful to support less equivocal fact-
based learning.
The richness of media can be judged by four main factors that usually
affect the way we communicate through media or face to face.
• Cues
- Mostly known as signal and in form of richness, it can be visual or
auditory.
• Feedback
- The faster feedback you receive, the more effective
communication you have.
• Focus
- People tend to lose focus in technological conversation than face
to face since it makes you attentive in every word and gesture.
• Language Variety
- It refers to the different meanings that can be interpreted.
Chris Drew explained in his article the strengths and weaknesses of this
theory such as:
Strengths:
• The theory is very beneficial for understanding which media are
best for which tasks. You don’t always want a rich media text,
especially if you want to communicate something without any debate
or discussion.
• The four criteria for analyzing the richness of media make it a very
practical theory. Anyone can classify and rank media based on the
four criteria provided.
• The theory acknowledges communication can be uni-directional,
unlike linear theories of media communication (such as Lasswell’s
model) which only account for one-way media communication.
Weaknesses:
• The theory was developed before Web 2.0 technologies, and
therefore may not be as useful for modern technology studies are
required to see whether the theory is of value today.
• The theory would not give anyone a definitive answer about
which media to use in which circumstance. Rather, it provides a
framework for making that decision for yourself.

7
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http
• The theory is not used very widely today – there are many other
approaches to media analysis and media acceptance that seem to be
more popular.
Daft and Lengel considered this theory a prescriptive model. Believe
it or not but we know that this theory is true based on our experiences in
real life. Every people still prefer a face to face interaction since we can
express and understand well than having a conversation through a medium
such as written mails, books, messaging
applications, and other forms of media. As a
student who is currently studying in amidst of
the Covid-19 pandemic, I can experience the
difficulties that the two theorists presented. It is
hard to study via
technology and
module as it has
many barriers such as internet connection,
availability of technology itself, poor
understanding for me, and personal matters
that usually occur when I am at home. Big
adjustments are done by students like me who
want to pursue studies. The experience is tiring and draining than having a
face to face class where you can do activities at school and homework at
home. Having a lean medium of communication for studying might work for
some but not for everyone. That is the reason why having the right medium
for communication is important to every people.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http

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Argumentation Theory Realubit
Everyday in our lives, we may or may not do it consciously, we argue
to prove our certain point to someone. In some cases, we argue to find out
what other people believes in and why do they believe in that. We argue
because there is a difference in our opinions, or that there is conflict present
in our situation towards other people. We think of an argument like war
between two people. Politically speaking, politicians fighting, presidential
debate. Lawfully speaking, a fight over a courtroom, lawyer vs jury kind of
fight, judge vs lawyer, or opposition vs opposition. Or basically just Annalise
Keating’s unresolved conflicts over her clients and co-workers. But in this
topic, we analyze how these theories are essential in our arguments.
Theories that will help us prove the validity of our premises.
Theories
Before we discuss theories that are useful in our arguments. It is
reasonable enough to say that these theories are made of features and
concepts derived from philosophy, rhetoric, and social theories that explain
the existence of these theories.
Pragma-Dialectics
This argumentation theory was developed by Frans H. van Eemeren
and Rob Grootendorst at the University of Amsterdam. This theory relies
more on the side of reasoning and dialectical procedures in order to resolve
differences of opinion. It also emphasizes speech acts that are used in
social-reasoning process, increase or decrease the acceptability of some
arguers’ standpoints in an argument. Argument analysis is also the main
focus of pragma-dialectics. Analyst categorize arguments based on
sequential stages of confrontation, opening, argumentation, and conclusion.
They then proceed to carefully analyze the disputes base on the description
of the issues, identifying their standpoints, implicit and explicit associated to
the disputants’ standpoints, and be able to explain the complex structures
and standards also that apply to the arguments.
Pragma-dialectic theory can be applied and analyze to a simple argument
between a landlord and tenant. As well as, complex disputes or arguments
like legal forums and international negotiations.

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The New Rhetoric
Derived from its meaning “rhetoric” which means the art of effective or
persuasive speaking or writing. The new rhetoric takes the value of
persuasion as the primary source or reason of arguers in order to persuade
others. Arguers in the new rhetoric usually constructs reasons that are based
on premises that comes from facts (like general knowledge), presumptions
(shared ideas about realities), and values (moral standard on what is good
and bad in a society). In this way, the arguers can gain an audience
adherence based on how they can establish a strong connection between
their values and the audience. This audience can be a particular group that
the arguers seek to persuade. An example of this can be the city voters as
the “particular audience.” That are being addressed by the political
candidates. For arguers to gain the people’s adherence, they must explicitly
address the values of their audience, and implicitly cite the values of the
universal audience.
Arguments that are based on the structure of reality, establish the arguers’
positions by linking them to audiences’ opinions and experiences of reality.
For example, when an arguer uses a credit card debt could lead to financial
burden, they will most likely rely on to someone who has a prior knowledge
or experience about the situation, rather than
their own knowledge. This type of
argumentation gives the arguers an idea that
the audience has a vision or a view of reality,
so arguers creates the reasons the same with
the audiences’ preexisting knowledge.
In contrast to that, arguments establishing the
structure of reality supports a view at odds with the reality familiar to
audiences. Arguers utilize examples, analogies, and models to construct a
reasonable view of reality that is not present in the audiences’ knowledge.

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For example, in a criminal trial defense an attorney will be able to construct
a structure of reality,
when attorneys try to
make the jury believe
that the criminal action is
accidental rather than
intentional base on what
really happened. Although
the jurors have no direct knowledge of the circumstances that happened
around the crime, the attorney will create a new reality out of the events
familiar to jurors. This argument will serve as the basis that the crime was
not intentional but rather, it is made out of an accident.
The new rhetoric explains arguers’ strategic uses of reasoning that are based
on associations and disassociations of ideas and issues in ways that will gain
the audiences’ adherence.
Toulmin’s Argument Model
Toulmin believes that a successful argument provides a good
justification in it. The Toulmin Argument model was developed by
philosopher Stephen E. Toulmin. Toulmin stated six component parts for
analyzing arguments. Claim is what the person is trying to prove. Grounds
are the supporting facts, evidence, or data that would help support or
establish the claim. Warrant is the connection between the evidence to the
claims. Backing provides support for the warrant. Any additional support for
the background that will make the warrant claim more concrete, definite, or
justified.

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Rebuttal are statements of another
valid view that might be significant
to the claim. Qualifier is the
speaker’s way of saying that the
argument might be wrong. We can
use the words “presumably”,
“probably”, “possible”, “impossible.”
The first three elements which is
considered as the “claim”, “ground”,
and “warrant.” are all considered as
the key components in the reasoning. The last three are the most least or
not much needed one.
There is one criticism in this model, that Toulmin did not consider the
importance of asking questions. It solely assumes that in an argument, it
always starts with a fact and ends with a conclusion.

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Conversation Theory Recto
Gordon Pask once said that, “I mean somebody with
the wit and the guts to do and create. And, that I believe is
what education is all about.” Education is what we need to
learn but it doesn’t stop there. It isn’t just about learning,
it’s also about creating new knowledge that we can share to
everyone by means of interaction. Learning is a process and
that’s what Gordon Pask's conversation theory aims to
explain. Back in 1972, Gordon Pask introduced the
Conversation Theory. The Conversation Theory originated
from a cybernetics framework and attempts to explain learning in both living
organisms and machines. The theory was basically about the occurrence of
gaining knowledge through interactions.
The conversation theory is like a theory of a learning process. It
shows how interactions can help us to learn and acquire knowledge, it could
be interactions with technology such as computers or interaction with
people. This interaction is considered as “conversation” in which both
parties could learn from each other. Conversations about a particular subject
can help us to make our knowledge more explicit. According to the
conversation theory, there are three levels of conversation:
• Natural language - it is the language that we used comfortably
such as Filipino or English. This language is used in general
discussion that occurs naturally in our daily life.
• Object language - used in conversation that focuses on a
particular subject.
• Metalanguage - used in conversation that is about the act of
learning.
All of us have a preferred way of learning, we used different strategies
so we can learn and understand easily. There are two types of learner, the
serialists and holists. The serialists are those people who studies
systematically. They will divide their works into parts then they will study
each part before studying it as a whole while the second type is the total
opposite of the serialists. The holists type of learner study a particular
subject as a whole instead of breaking it into parts. We have different way of
learning that will help us to comprehend well a particular topic,
understanding is very important. To determine that there is really an
understanding, we can use the “teachback method” in which one person
Gordon Pask

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teaches the other person what they have learned. For instance in the
classroom, a group of student will discuss the topic that is given to them by
their teacher. Before the reporting, the group of student which is the
reporter will surely studies that given topic to them, they could make
research online or study through the books so they could give a
comprehensible discussion in front of their class. Same goes with Teacher-
student interaction, Teachers teaches us the things that we have to learn
then after the discussion teachers and the students should know the
relationship between the concepts or topic and it will determine if the
students really understood the lesson or do we really learn from the
teachers. We can also relate the teachback method with the entailment
structure. Gordon Pask argued that a subject matter should be represented
in the form of entailment structure because it shows what is to be
learned. The concept of it refers to the relationship between the two
sentences, like if the first statement is true then the next statement followed
by it must also be true. For Teacher-student interaction, if the Teacher
discussed well the lesson, then the students will surely understand well the
lesson.
Conversation Theory applies to the learning of any subject matter.
For us to learn a particular subject, we must know the relationship among a
the concepts. If we need to dig deeper for us to learn, then we should. If we
have to be like a serialist learner, then we must so we could learn well. After
all, learning really requires explicit
explanation of a subject matter to
facilitates the understanding. The more we
look into the explanations, the more we
discover, understand and learn. Learning is
a process, we cannot just learn on our own.
There will always be an interaction along
the way of learning, interactions with
books, computers and people or other
living organisms. We educate ourselves in a
learning styles that we think could be the easiest way for us to learn, we
discover and share knowledge by means of having connection with others.
Like what Gordon Pask believes, he believes that education is all about to
do and create, we don’t just interact, let us interact significantly. The way
we connect can be impactful, it’s becoming more important to change
information into meaning than to simply know information. Through
learning, we create connections and facilitates a meaningful interactions.
https://www.google.com/search?q=conversation+&tb
m=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiY04Srt-
nsAhXLAaYKHaYiBJQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=conversation+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQ
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M&imgdii=86mWx7-FNNXvPM

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Contagion Theory Refugio
Spending as much time as all do in public transit has allowed people to
spend a great deal of time observing human behavior and social contagion.
By social contagion, this refers to human emotion and action that can
influence other individuals in your vicinity.
As everyone would notice, when students enter the classroom and the
other student would say, “Good morning!” to the teacher, the rest of the
students would be inclined to say Good Morning as well. As people exited the
room and I would say, “Thank You!”, I noticed that everyone behind me
would say Thank You as well. As a senior citizen came on a train and I would
give up my seat to that individual, so as three to four around me, even
though only one seat is needed for this person. If I keep anti-social and keep
to myself, those around me would do the exact same thing, but if I choose
to smile and interact with those around me, those around me would be very
receptive to that. Too many examples, you get it.
The contagion theory was proposed at first by Gustave Le Bon through a
research called, ”The Crowd: A Study of Popular Mind in France” which was
published in 1885. He expressed contagion effect on social and political
opinions. He just explained crowd influence but not crowd’s influence on
individuals, which was later added by Robert Park and Herbert Blumer. The
theory says that ideas or behavior transfers through and from his network
and can be unreasonable and inconsistent for a brief amount of time. The
effect again goes away if the person leaves the crowd.
WHAT:
CHRISTAKIS AND FOWLER (2011):
’germs, behavior and affective states’
• An unhelpful metaphor
1. It implies that transmission is pathological.
2. It suggests that spread is indiscriminate and mindless.
3. Doesn’t explain the mechanism(s). Not mere exposure.
• Behaviors and affective states are spread through two processes:
1. Social Norms
2. Imitation
• Originally proposed by Gustave Le Bon (1896).
• Proposes that crowds exert a hypnotic influence on their members.

15
• Behaviors spread simply through touch, exposure or contact.
HOW:
States that as the emotional intensity in the crowd increases, people
temporarily lose their individuality to the “will” of the crowd.
WHY:
People are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior in a crowd
because they are anonymous and feel invulnerable. Crowd excitement is
contagious and breaks down the restraint of individuals. Collective
behavior is understood as irrational, people will do things in a collectively
that they will not do alone.
WHEN:
The hypnotic influence, when combined with the anonymity of belonging
to a large group, results in irrational, emotionally charged behavior.
Contagion Theory is one of the most interesting topic I was assigned to
research upon. It’s importance is to make you realize how deadly the
influence of a crowd behavior is. Below is an experiment that will indicate
the importance of the theory.
Rhythm 0
In “Rhythm 0”, Abramovic
offered herself passively to
spectators, who could do what
they liked with a range of
objects and her body. A text on
the wall read “There are
seventy-two on the table that
can be used on me as desired.
I am the object.” At first, the
audience was very kind and
well-intentioned. Some gave
roses to the hands of a woman, some fed her with cake, and some caressed
her hair, or shook her hand. However, as he time passes and the
performance extended, the color of the work began to change.

16
By the end of her performance, all
her clothes had been cut off with
razor blades, she had been cut,
painted, cleaned decorated, crowned
with thorns, kissed, spat, undressed,
groped, and had a loaded gun
pressed to her head. After six hours,
the performance was halted by
concerned spectators.
All because of a woman from the crowd wiped her tears and hugged her.
Then the disturbed minority finally intervened. Some of them cleaned up the
artist’s wounds, while other covered her. They extended her a smoke to
calm her down.
This event, which turned out to be more of a social experiment than a
performance art, showed how the majority can easily reveal evil within
themselves with each other’s encouragement.
This was not a Contagion Theory experiment, but I’d like to relate it that
way. With the majority of the spectators who tried to change their colors in
front of her, encouraged others to do the same. This is the power of the
crowd. Whether it’s for positive or negative, contagion is an effect of
suggestion; a process of social influence. Anyone is susceptible to this
process, so just any idea, any sentiment, any behavior, spreads through the
crowd.

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Mood Management Theory Salvador
We all know that the Social
Media/Media today is very extensive to
the point that we do
not only use it for
communication,
research and
entertainment but for soothing our emotions or mood
as well. Some of us who is suffering with mental
health problems use social media and media for self-
management. Some use it as a coping mechanism to
express their feelings. However, despite the
therapeutic benefits of social media and media to our
mental health, it can be also harmful for our well-
being. I have read that in the year 1985, the Mood Management Theory
(MMT) was first introduced by Zillmann and Bryant as Theory of Affect ‐
Dependent Stimulus Arrangement. It was then developed in the year
1988 by Dolf Zillmann. He was persuaded to do the research because of
his interest in understanding how different means of communication,
specifically, media is selectively attended to and consumed to manage
mood. I have read that this theory proposed that people consume media to
sustain or adjust their current mood. Mood management has rarely been
examined in more youthful audiences, for example, despite evidence that
adolescents are among the most avid users of media (Roberts & Foehr,
2004).
The Mood Management Theory anticipates that we select media
content based on our preferences which later results to developing about
ourselves, our idea and our behavior. We create and reform our self-identity,
self-expression and abstract thinking and judgement making, which is
commonly influenced by social media and media. Although, research
suggests that there are some gaps present in this theory before drawing
specific hypotheses especially in terms how mood management applies to
specific populations. For instance, a significant percentage of people suffer
from mood disorders which impacts their capacity for mood regulation.
Another instance is the variations of age groups, such as teenagers because
during this period where we, teenagers are not yet fully mentally and
emotionally developed compared to adults which affect how they perceive
and behave on a daily basis. Lastly, for instances such as gender differences
results may vary because we girls are much prone to media contents that
are empathic due to our feminine identity and capacity which affects how
our mood management reacts. These are some of the gaps that we are
unconscious about because there is still a need for thorough research in
Dolf Zillmann
https://www.google.com/search?q=mood+ef
fect+social+media&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKE
wjy-JjNiuvsAhUIDpQKHZ5mD6oQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=mood+effect+social+medi
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b3QCg&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHBD_
enPH892PH892#imgrc=Rb0ofARYlSr9sM&im
gdii=w7Z0FHta3q0TVM

18
order to provide and sustain more concrete data on how mood management
affects us individually.
Mood management theory focuses on four distinct dimensions that
characterize media messages in terms of mood‐altering effects (Zillmann,
1988):
➢ Excitatory Potential – When we have a high level of arousal our
choice of media content is to help us soothe our thoughts or feelings.
➢ Absorption Potential – When our thoughts and feelings are
disrupted by the media content.
➢ Semantic Affinity – When our mood is in propinquity with the media
content which we are watching. It could likely trigger our mood and
make it worse especially when we are in a bad mood.
➢ Hedonic Valence – When the media content decides on what we will
feel. Positive content gives us positive feelings; negative content gives
us negative feelings.
Mood management theory predicts that
media users show specific preference for media
messages with distinct combinations of these
mood‐altering characteristics as a function of their
current affective state. As stimulus arrangement is
guided by the goal to minimize negative and to
maximize positive moods, media users should
selectively expose themselves to such messages that provide the best fit
with their current mood optimization needs. (Reinecke, 2016) Aside from the
four distinct dimensions of the MMT, there are also four components for us
to furtherly understand this theory, namely:
➢ Mood - Mild; long-lasting; underlying feeling that is experienced daily.
(Robinson, 2020)
➢ Media Consumption - Amount of media content that a we consumes.
➢ Hedonic Motivation - The influence of media to our pleasurable spur.
➢ Selective Exposure - Engaged in consuming different media
contents.
https://www.google.com/search?
q=social+media+use&tbm=isch&
chips=q:social+media+use,g_1:
negative:D8-
54U6apac%3D&rlz=1C1CHBD_en
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ECAEQGw&biw=1349&bih=625#i
mgrc=j46ugfLlC4zZZM

19
As a result to mixed evidences when comparing about the four
components and four distinct dimensions, I have read that the researchers
during the 1980s have suggested and proposed a number of Theoretical
Extensions and Alternative Interpretations within the line of the theory.
To additionally give us knowledge about MMT, there were basic assumptions
taken into commentary such as:
➢ Individual Differences – Some results of the mood
management theory may differ from demographic variables of
gender, personal characteristics and personal attitudes. Some
media consumptions can give two people with the same mood
different reactions to their hedonic valence, depending on their
processing.
➢ Emotional Utility – This may give us anticipation and hopes
that could trigger our mood. While media users hope for a
positive ending for morally good and innocent protagonists, they
hope for punishment and a negative ending for disliked
antagonists. (Reinecke, 2016)
➢ Information Utility – This is complementary to Emotional
Utility because this can drive our desire to learn something and
gain information for ourselves especially when we are lonely. We
could use this as a coping mechanism.
➢ Mood Adjustment Theory and Telic Hendonism – This refers
to acceptance negative mood and unpleasant states. While
positive mood and hedonic pleasure may be desirable and
adaptive in many situations, they may be dysfunctional or
socially undesirable for other tasks or social situations (Reinecke,
2016). We, media users select media content for us to maximize
our concentration to thoroughly think, rather that thinking of
adjusting our mood.
The Mood Management Theory
explains that Media Consumption has a
big impact on sustaining and adjusting
our mood. Zillman’s theory also supports
that despite our gender or psychological
well-being we are still into using social
media and is still eagerly motivated to consume media and thus, media
https://www.google.com/search?q=social+m
edia+use&tbm=isch&chips=q:social+media+
use,g_1:negative:D8-
54U6apac%3D&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH892PH89
2&hl=en-
GB&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjUltnD6u7sAhVBYp
QKHY2qDvMQ4lYoA3oECAEQGw&biw=1349&
bih=625#imgrc=szR3305utr09OM

20
sustains or adjusts our moods in any way possible. It proves that media
consumption is driven by hedonic motivation that could give us pleasurable
effects. In times of mobile Internet connections and smartphones, the
temptations of pleasurable media use seem to be a growing challenge for us
media users. In this media environment, hedonic striving for mood
optimization may easily conflict with other less pleasurable goals and
obligations and result in procrastination (Reinecke, Hartmann, & Eden,
2014). Thus, media consumption helps us enhance our general vitality and
cognitive performance after going through stress. With proper management
and usage this could help us have a good effect on our mood management
and psychological health and well-being.

21
https://3.imimg.com/data3/JB/PJ/MY
-11115792/mobile-technologies-
500x500.jpg
https://businessjournaldaily.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/03/DigitalDivide.gif
Theory of Digital Divide Samson
We are now living in a world wherein
modern technologies and internet connectivity
play a huge part in communication. Often times,
we opt to interact more with our family and
friends through the use of mobile phones and the
internet. I, for once, use these to easily send a
message for I know that the message I want to
deliver can be easily accessed by the one I am
communicating with. It is literally a single click
away. But can this modern way of communication
really benefit all of us equally? From my
perspective, the answer is no. The situation that I
am in is not the same for some. There are a lot of
people who do not have access to the internet which is a problem faced
worldwide. With this, the concept of Digital Divide comes to light.
Digital Divide is the term
used to define the disparity
between the people who can
easily have access to
communication and information
technology and to those who have
little to no access at all. Theory
of Digital Divide, on the other
hand, hypothesizes that this gap
is indeed present and happening.
This conflict is encountered by
different parts of the world and is affecting us negatively for it causes
inequality and imbalance. This questions the inclusion to communication and
information that everyone has the right to have. An example of this is the
situation between Africa and the United States. As most of us know, Africa
suffers from poverty and other serious issues and one of those is the
minimal, or in some parts, absence of internet and technology. According to
research, in the year 2013, merely 8.6 percent of the total population in
Africa had access to the internet while in the US, there were 81 percent. This
clearly shows the difference not only in accessibility of technology but also in
economic and social levels.

22
One of the main factors of the existence of digital divide is the
broadening of economic income. With this, acquiring technology will be
difficult due to poverty. However, according to my research, internet
accessibility is not just the issue concerning digital divide. Internet
utilization and internet receptiveness are also the determinants of it.
People should know how to utilize the information they are gaining from the
internet because not knowing how won’t help us to be more knowledgeable
about it. Knowing how to be receptive from the information is important as
well because our reactions matter. Having a reaction means that we do
acknowledge the ideas we get from the internet. These three determinants
will not entirely solve digital divide, but it will help find a better solution.
The determinants can be associated with the three stages of digital
divide as they basically have the same thoughts.
➢ The first stage is the economic divide which simply proposes that
there are some people who do not have enough money to purchase a
technology. An example case where this divide is present is the
situation between urban and secluded rural areas in the Philippines.
➢ The next stage is the usability divide that implies the lack of
knowledge most people have about the usage of technology. The
perfect illustration for this divide is the senior citizens for we all know
that technology is new for them that is why seniors not knowing how
to use these are quite predictable.
➢ Finally, the last stage, which is the empowerment stage, indicates
that even though the technologies and the internet we have features
easy to use materials, most of us still do no use it and see its full
potential. For instance, we occasionally just stick to the default home
page that the creators chose for us without acknowledging the fact
that we could change it into a format that can be more beneficial for
us.
These stages are essential for us to understand as it can help us know
all the root cause of why digital divide is still occurring up to this day.
Focusing on communication, digital divide certainly has an impact to it.
As I have said earlier, the 21st century already rely almost everything to
technology, most especially in communicating. In researching this, I have
found out that three main theories are derived in justifying the effects of
digital divide with the use of communication theories.
➢ Diffusion of Innovations Theory by Rogers (1986) states that
people who can easily and rapidly adopt to communication

23
technologies are the ones who have more resources. Latest
technologies often generate gaps about uninterrupted
knowledge.
➢ Network Society by Castells (2000), on the other hand, claims
that this generation is becoming more interactive because of
technologies. Vital adjustments at the levels of society are
caused by the said interactions.
➢ Adaptive Structuration Theory by DeSanctis and Poole (1994)
emphasizes the potential that IT has to improve the resources
for those who already had them and to those who are yet to
acquire these resources prior to adoption.
Each of these theories asserts that the internet and technologies we have
are not just an alternative medium for communication but also a method to
have an effective interaction and make formal modifications. However, even
with this conclusion, we cannot deny that we are still facing problems in
terms of accessibility, knowledge, and skill to technologies the reason why
we still experience digital divide.

24
Acknowledgmen
Punzalan
For this project of ours, my greatest appreciation to myself for having such
will to finish this written report of ours even though I do lack sleep because
of my work. Also, biggest thanks to my group for cooperating with each
other that led us doing this task smoothly and on time. To my family who
gave time for me to not do house chores for days for me to rest even just
for an hour. Lastly, to some of our professors who became considerate of
our situation and gave us time to rest. And to Ms. Jastia, for giving us this
opportunity to learn about communication theories and for giving us time to
finish it.
Realubit
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for myself for having the
strength and motivation to finish this task. I have encountered obstacles
along the way, but i am able to surpass all of them with determination and
discipline. Grateful for my family because they have been very
understanding towards my situation. My friends who have been my rock
during these times. My group mates of course, for making this outcome
possible. We wouldn’t be able to create this results without each and
everyone’s help.
Recto
I'd like to express my deepest gratitude to my Cousins who let me to do my
project in their house. We don't have internet connection yet at home that's
why I have to go to my cousins house for my online classes and for doing
my activities. In addition, I'd like to thank may Parents for being
understanding. I'm also thankful for my groupmates who are very
considerate and patient answering all my questions about this report,
without them I won't be able to do my report accurately.
Refugio

25
I am entirely in debt with how my parents handle my alone time, especially
for this situation. Not nearly enough for what I can pay but they're still on
track for what they can offer. And for the drive of my passed activities, I am
grateful for my brother. He's working from home and technically, he needs
laptop. But I heard no complains when I indicated that I need it to, so I
borrow it from time to time. He's also the one who bought techs for the
extension of the signal from wifi, in order to make it up to my room. What
an exceptional brother. I was able to make it this far because of goodness I
receive from these extraordinary people.
Salvador
I am thankful that I have finished this project in due time despite the
pandemic and the struggles of the online classes today. I am grateful as well
to my family that they have given me a quite time inside the house so that I
will have more focus on what I am doing. To my friends, because they've
supported me in doing this project and helped me whenever I had questions
to ask. Lastly, to my groupmates because they have been patient and
understanding during the process of making this project.
Samson
I am deeply grateful for my group mates for being cooperative while doing
this report. They were also patient in answering the inquiries I have. The
deadlines were properly followed and we were able to finish the report ahead
of time because of our team work. In line with this, I would also like to give
my gratitude to my classmates who gave clear and understandable
instructions for this report. We were able to properly do this with the help of
the said instructions

26
References
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Recto
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28
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