Analysis of Basic Concepts in Sociology and Cultural Anthropology

This paper delves into the fundamental concepts of sociology and cultural anthropology, beginning with an introduction to these social sciences and their focus on human behavior, society, and culture. It defines social institutions as organized norms preserving societal values, categorizing them into primary (family, economics, religion, education, and the state) and secondary institutions. The paper discusses the functions of institutions, distinguishing between manifest and latent functions, and explores their interrelations and adaptability to societal changes. Furthermore, it defines social structures as organized groups of related individuals, outlining their elements (normative, position, sanction, anticipated response, and action systems) and types (universalistic-achievement, universalistic-ascription, particularistic-achievement, and particularistic-ascription patterns). The paper then provides multiple definitions of culture and examines its key elements: language, symbols, norms, values, beliefs, and cognitive elements. The analysis highlights the interconnectedness of these concepts and their significance in understanding human societies.

Running head: SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY CONCEPTS 1
BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Name
Institution

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Introduction
The study of social sciences entails studying human being which includes their behavior ,
the society in which they live and their culture over a period of time. Anthropology and
sociology fall into the category of social sciences. Cultural Anthropology is one of the five
disciplines of Anthropology (Cicourel, 2017). It involves the study of human cultures, what they
believe their practices, values, ideas and other aspects of social and cognitive organization
(Weber, 2017). It normally identifies the similarities and differences between different groups of
people. On the other hand Sociology is normally concerned in how the human society operates,
where they come from, how they are organized in the context of formal setup like schools and
churches or hospitals.
Social institutions play a vital role in shaping the behavior of people in the society. This
is due to the fact at least every person belongs to at least one social institution such as a church.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the basic concepts as used in Sociology and Cultural
Anthropology (Rapport, 2014). In this paper, social institutions and the functions that they play
in the society and the social structures will be discussed. Culture and its element is also going to
be discussed in details.
Definition of social institutions
A social institution is a term used in sociology to refer to a set of social norms that are
compound and organized so as to preserve the fundamental values that guides the society. The
rise and survival of institutions is attributed to the necessity that may exist in the family (Powell
& Oberg, 2017). Despite the universal agreement of the origin of institution by sociologists,
there are varied suggestions given to the specific driving factors. Institutions are categorized into
five primary institutions. Primary institutions includes: family, economics, religion, education
and the state. These primary institutions are universal and are found in every culture in the world.
They form part of humanity. Each primary institution gives rise to several secondary institutions.
The family institution gives rise to monogamy, polygamy, divorce and marriage while
economics gives rise to banking, credit, trading and property. The institution of religion gives
rise to church, temple, mosque, totem and taboo. From education, we get university, school and
college. The institution of state gives rise to party system, interest groups and democracy.

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Of the five institutions, the state has power and authority to control the other four
institutions. It accomplishes it role through enactment of laws and regulations.
Something notable about institution is that they have a perpetual existence. Norms
governing the institution are changed as per the needs of the time.
Functions of institutions
There are two kinds of social institution functions. The first function of social institution
is the primary purpose for which it was formed. This primary purpose is known as manifest
functions. There is other kind of function that an organization fulfills which is not its primary
reason for existence. These functions are known as latent functions (Wilson, 2017). Latent
functions are as a result of the manifest functions. Latent functions can liken to hide obtained
from a cow. When a butcher slaughters a cow, his main purpose is to get meat. In the process of
slaughtering a cow to get meat, hide is also obtained and becomes a source of revenue.
The primary function of education is to develop skills for labor market, improve literacy
level of the society, and promote critical thinking while its latent functions include socialization
among students, learning different cultures, keep the children busy among other things.
Religion’s main function is to worship God and inculcate religious beliefs to members whereas it
latent function is to develop close association among members. Economics’ main function is
seen to be production and distribution of goods while at the same time it promotes urbanization
and development of social classes.
Inter- relations of institutions
The success of any social institution is greatly influenced by the kind of relationship
developed with other institutions. Just as the proverb say that no man is an island, it can also be
said that no institution is an island and therefore cannot operate by itself (Thompson, 2017).
Action by one institution can either influence the activities of the other positively or negatively.
A mutual interaction and relation is therefore necessary to all these social institutions.
Religion focuses at teaching people matters related to their faith. It therefore requires the
help of educational institution to improve the literacy of the people so that they understand faith.
Economics requires skilled workforce to work in the production sector (Fortes, 2018). These

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skills are acquired at educational institutions. Many people strife to improve their financial
stability before they can settle into marriage. The longer they take at stabilizing themselves, the
more they will delay getting married. This has a direct impact on the population growth rate and
birth rates in the society.
The state plays the role of monitoring the efficiency of the other institutions. It may also
decide to relieve an institution of its duties. The state can do this if it realizes that an institution
has been overwhelmed with responsibilities. The state can also decide to alter the norms that
guide these institutions. The state has a role of formulating laws that will create an enabling
environment for proper functioning of other institutions. In case the state interferes with
achievement of the other institutions’ objectives, the other institutions may come together to
influence the acts of the state and prevent interference.
Society changes from time to time. This forces institutions to adjust according to the
societal changing needs. Institutions should be adaptive to the ever changing social environment.
Failure to adapt may have adverse effects to normal functioning of the institutions (Layder,
2014). It should also be noted that a change occurring in one institution can significantly bring a
change in another institution. Change can also bring inter- institutional role shift. Inter-
institution shift is a situation when the roles of one institution are taken by another institution as
a result of change in the social environment. An example of institutional change is where a state
takes the role of child which is primarily the role the family institution.
Discuss the meaning of social structures
When the term structure is used, what comes into the mind is something that has proper
arrangement and planning. Social structure is a concept commonly used in Sociology. Different
scholars have made attempts to give the meaning of the term social structure. According to
(Radcliffe-Brown, & Forde, 2015) a social structure is group of related people organized in an
environment that is regulated. An example of a relationship is like that of couples. The building
components of a social structure are institutions. Some of these institutions include the state,
family, religion, economics and educations. These Institutions are further composed of
individuals. The relationship maintained by these individuals is very paramount in determining
the success of the social structure.

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Elements of social structure
i. Normative System: this system set ideals and values. Institutions relates
with each other under the guidance of the set norms. Individuals values these norm and
always them.
ii. Position System: this system appreciates the abilities of different
individuals in a social structure. Each individual should therefore be assigned task as their
capabilities.
iii. Sanction System: this system ensures that the set norms in the society are
adhered to by every individual
iv. A System of Anticipated Response: this system ensures that individuals
participate in their respective duties to facilitate success of the social structure.
v. Action System: the action system entails an explanation of the reasons of
the existence of the social structure.
Types of Social Structure:
According to (Parsons, 2017), the four social structures he identifies are classified using
the following social values: universalistic social values, achieved social values, particularistic
social values, and ascribed social values. Universalistic social values are common to most people
in the society while particularistic social values may different in different in different societies.
Below are the four types of social structures:
i. The Universalistic- Achievement Pattern: this is a pattern formed when
values of both universalism and achievement are brought together. This social structure
requires that goals be chosen as per the universalistic values.
ii. Universalistic- Ascription Pattern: this social structure is dominated by
ascription values. It lays emphasis on position and not the individual capabilities. This
structure focuses more on groups and not individuals (Benjamin & Dervin, 2015).
Everything in this structure is viewed at group level and seeks to benefit the group as
opposed to individuals.

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iii. The particularistic- Achievement Pattern: contains values from both
particularism and achievement. This structure motivates people to work hard as much
weight is put on individual achievements.
iv. The Particularistic- Ascriptive Pattern: more weight in this structure is put
on stability.
Explain and give three definitions of culture
Different scholars have attempted to give the definition of culture. In this section three
definitions by different scholars will be considered.
Useem and Useem identify culture as a behavior that is learnt and shared through
interactions in the community. Linton acknowledges that culture is a behavior. He further says
that this behavior is adopted and shared within a society. Lastly, Hofstede views culture as
mental training that differentiates members of different society.
Culture is a wide term which is not conclusively defined by the above scholars. The
scholars have only highlighted some of the building components of culture. In order to
understand the scope of the term culture, the elements of culture must be discussed. Elements of
culture include: language, norms, beliefs, symbols, values and cognitive elements (Dickson,
2018). A brief discussion of this element is given in the subsequent parts of this paper.
Language
Members in a society pass message through language. Language differs from one society
to another. It is also passed from one generation to another. No social activity could be
accomplished without language. Language forms a mechanism through which people socialize.
Language is one of the most fundamental elements of culture. Language entails both verbal and
non verbal communication.
Symbols
Presence of symbols in culture helps an individual to understand objects or situations.
They direct how people behave or ought to behave. Different symbol have different meaning in

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different cultures. Some culture uses an image of a lion as a symbol of bravery while others uses
a white colour to symbolize peace.
Norms
Norms are used to highlight what behavior is acceptable and what is not acceptable in the
society. They guide the behavior of individuals in a given culture. Some norms are written while
other are just communicated through a word of mouth (Sherry, 2014). Norms are used to create
orderliness in a society. Individuals who go against the established norms are punished. Norms
are classified into folkways and mores. Folkways represent behavior that is generally acceptable
while mores is the behavior that everyone in the community must follow.
Values
These are the positive attributes possessed by an individual in a society. It is also those
things that the society views to be good. Different cultures possess different values.
Beliefs
Beliefs are those things people which people think are true to them .it is also concerned
with supernatural powers. Different cultures subscribe into different beliefs (Williams, 2014).
Some cultures believe in the existence of God while do not believe in the existence of
supernatural powers.
Cognitive Elements
This is the mental ability to several things and solve problem. Culture also entails
thinking and solving problems.
From the three definitions that were given, it can be observed that:
i. Culture involves a group of people who share common knowledge;
ii. Communication is very basic in any culture;
iii. Culture entails a behavior that is cultivated through interactions;
iv. It also entails the way of living of people;
v. It is hereditary, that is transmitted from one generation to another and

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vi. It forms part of human nature.
Conclusion
Human behavior is greatly influenced by the surrounding environment in which he lives.
Cultural anthropologist examines human behavior in their cultural setting while sociologists on
the other hand focus on human behavior in the context of a formal setup such as social
institutions. Culture and social institutions play a greater role in shaping the behavior of human
being (Sociology group, 2018). This is because at least every human being belongs to certain
culture and a certain social institution.
Social institutions are organized in such a way that they help in preserving the basic
values of the society. Different social institutions plays different role in preserving values. A
family, for instance, ensures that children are raised in the right way (Lewis, 2017). Parents teach
their children good morals. It is also in the family setup that children are taught on how to be
responsible adult. Marriage creates commitment in couple and help in reducing infidelity. On the
other hand, religion inculcates good values to its members, teach her members on how to relate
among other social values.
Education institutions ensure that the society is educated. It seeks to improve the literacy
level of the society. It also ensures that economic institutions are provided with skilled labour.
Economic institutions works hard to ensure that good and services are available for consumption.
The state is the overall authority tasked with the responsibility of guiding the other institutions
(Blau, 2017). All the institution works together in a mutual relationship to achieve their
objectives.
Different cultures helps in shaping the conduct of individuals in a society differently.
Through norms, culture highlights the generally accepted behavior. Values guide the society on
what ideal and good for them. Language is used a medium of communication ( Crowther, 2016).
Different aspects of life are taught through the use language.
The role played by social institution and culture cannot be under estimated. A good
relationship maintained between these institutions is the determinant of their success in ensuring
that the required behavior is maintained in the society.

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